LIBRARY 

OF  THK 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


GIFT  OF" 


^Accession  86003         Class 


THK  KING  OF  BKASTS. 


ANIMAL  LIFE 


IN  THE  SEA  AND  ON  THE  LAND 


A  ZOOLOGY  FOR  YOUNG  PEOPLE 


BY  SAEAH   COOPER 


ILLUSl RATED 


NEW  YORK  .:•  CINCINNATI  •:•  CHICAGO 

AMEIilCAN    BOOK    COMPANY 


Supplementary  Reading  for  Elemen- 
tary Grades. 

Attractively  Illustrated. 


Rickoff's    Supplementary    First    Reader.      122 

pages.     25  cents. 
Book  of   Cats  and    Dogs  and    Other    Friends. 

(First  reader  grade.)     96  pages.     17  cents. 
Friends  in  Feathers  and  Fur,  and  Other  Neigh- 

bors.    (Second   reader  grade.)     140  pages.    30 

cents. 
Neighbors  with  Wings    and    Fins,   and    Some 

Others.     (Third  reader  grade.)     230  pages.    40 

cents. 
Some  Curious  Flyers,  Creepers  and  Swimmers. 

(Third  reader  grade.)     220  pages.    40  cents. 
Grandfather's   Stories. 

137  pages.    27  cents. 
Stories  of  Heroic  Deeds. 

151  pages.    30  cents. 
Stories  of  Our  Country. 

207  pages.    40  cents. 
Stories  of  Other  Lands. 

232  pages.    40  cents. 
Easy  Steps  for  Little  Feet.  (First  reader  grade.) 

128  pages.    25  cents. 
Golden  Book  of  Choice  Reading.  (Second  reader 

grade.)     192  pages.    30  cents. 
Book  of  Tales.  (Third  reader  grade.)  272  pages. 

50  cents. 
Familiar    Animals    and    Their    Wild    Kindred. 

(Third  reader  grade.)     208  pages.    50  cents. 
Living   Creatures   of    Water,    Land   and   Air. 

(Third  reader  grade.)     208  pages.    50  cents. 


(First  reader  grade.) 
(Second  reader  grade.) 
(Third  reader  grade.) 
(Third  reader  grade.) 


y  book  on  this  list  mailed  to  any  ad- 
dress on  receipt  of  price.  Write  for  descriptive 
circulars. 


Copyright,  1887,  by  HARPER  &  BROTHERS. 
All  rights  reserved. 


COOPER   AN.    LIFE. 
E-P    6 


TO 

THE  ENTHUSIASTIC  CLASSES 

FOR  WHICH  THE  LESSONS  WERE  PREPARED 

THIS  BOOK 

3s  <Mectionatdfl  IDebicateb 


86003 


PKEFACE. 


THIS  book  is  offered  to  young  people  with  the  hope 
that  it  may  help  them  in  their  studies  of  natural  history. 
The  pleasure  of  every  ramble  in  the  country  or  by  the  sea- 
side is  increased  by  an  acquaintance  with  the  animals  and 
plants  which  are  found  by  the  way,  and  consequently 
these  studies  bring  their  own  reward. 

It  is  far  more  charming  to  gain  this  knowledge  from 
the  objects  themselves  than  from  merely  reading  about 
them  in  books ;  and  it  is  therefore  hoped  that  each  subject 
which  is  treated  in  these  pages  will  be  studied  from  speci- 
mens actually  in  hand,  whenever  it  is  possible  to  obtain 
them. 

The  habit  of  collecting  natural  objects  and  curiosities  is 
a  helpful  one ;  and  if  young  students  are  careful  to  find 
out  all  they  can  about  these  objects,  the  collection  will  in 
time  represent  an  unexpected  amount  of  positive  knowl- 
edge. 

The  aim  has  been  to  make  this  little  book  accurate,  and 
to  bring  it  up  to  the  present  condition  of  science;  at  the 
same  time  scientific  terms  have  been  avoided  when  others 
could  be  substituted  for  them.  Classification  has  not 
been  made  prominent,  yet  the  arrangement  of  Nicholson 
has  been  adhered  to  throughout. 


VI  PREFACE. 

Starting  with  the  sponge,  and  going  systematically 
through  the  animal  kingdom,  a  gradual  development  has 
been  traced  from  the  simple  forms  of  life  up  to  the  high- 
est, and  such  subjects  have  been  selected  for  the  purpose 
as  are  probably  of  most  general  interest. 

Especial  attention  has  been  given  to  the  structure  of 
animals,  and  to  the  wonderful  adaptation  of  this  structure 
to  their  various  habits  and  modes  of  life. 

S.  C. 

PHILADELPHIA,  June,  1887. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

I.   SPONGES 1 

II.   HYDROIDS 12 

III.  JELLY-FISHES 18 

IV.  THE  " PORTUGUESE  MAN-OF-WAR." 26 

V.   SEA- ANEMONES 29 

VI.   CORALS 36 

VII.   CORAL  REEFS 43 

VIII.   CTENOPHORA 49 

IX.   STAR-FISHES 56 

X.   SEA-URCHINS 63 

XL   CRINOIDS,  OR  STONE-LILIES 70 

XII.   SEA-CUCUMBERS 76 

XIII.  EARTH-WORMS 82 

XIV.  CRABS 88 

XV.   LOBSTERS 95 

XVI.   BARNACLES 99 

XVII.   SPIDERS 103 

XVIII.   INSECTS 110 

XIX.   BEES 119 

XX.   WASPS  AND  MOSQUITOES 128 

XXI.   ANTS 135 

XXII.   OYSTERS 143 

XXIII.  MUSSELS  AND  PECTENS 149 

XXIV.  CLAMS  AND  RAZOR-FISHES 154 

XXV.   GASTEROPODS 158 

XXVI.   LIMPETS  AND  LAND-SNAILS 165 

XXVII.   THE  OCTOPUS,  OR  DEVIL-FISH 170 

XXVIII.   THE  ARGONAUT 176 

XXIX.   THE  PEARLY  NAUTILUS 181 

XXX.   BACKBONED  ANIMALS 185 

XXXI.   FISHES..  192 


Vlll 


CONTENTS. 


XXXII.   THE  MIGRATION  OP  FISHES 205 

XXXIII.  FROGS  AND  TOADS 211 

XXXIV.  TURTLES 217 

XXXV.   SNAKES 223 

XXXVI.    LIZARDS 230 

XXXVII.    CROCODILES 235 

XXXVIII.   CHARACTERISTICS  OF  BIRDS , .  243 

XXXIX.   BIRDS'  EGGS  AND  NESTS 253 

XL.    SWIMMING-BIRDS  (Natatores) , 260 

XLI.    WADING-BIRDS  (Grallatores) ...  271 

XLII.   RUNNING-BIRDS  ( Cursores) 277 

XLIII.    SCRATCHING-BIRDS  (Rasores) 284 

XLIV.   CLIMBING-BIRDS  (Scansores) « 295 

XLV.   PERCHING-BIRDS  (Insessores) 302 

XL VI.   BIRDS  OP  PREY  (Raptores) . .  320 

XLVII.   THE  ORNITHORHYNCHUS 327 

XLVIII.   KANGAROOS  AND  OPOSSUMS 333 

XLIX.    SLOTHS,  ARMADILLOS,  AND  GREAT  ANT-EATERS.  338 

L.   WHALES 344 

LI.   HORSES 353 

LII.   DEER 358 

LIII.   CAMELS 368 

LIV.   ELEPHANTS 372 

LV.   LIONS  AND  TIGERS 377 

LVI.   SEALS  AND  WALRUSES 382 

LVII.   BEAVERS  AND  SQUIRRELS 387 

LVIII.   BATS 395 

LIX.   MONKEYS 398 

LX.   MAN  . .  .406 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


The  King  of  Beasts Frontispiece. 


FIG.  PAGE 

1.  Sponge 1 

2.  Sponges  Growing 2 

3.  Groups  of  Spicules 3 

4.  Circulation  of  Water  through 

the  Sponge 4 

5.  Living  Sponge'in  Action. . .  4 

6.  Neptune's  Glove 6 

7.  Venus's  Flower-basket 7 

8.  Sponge -fishing 9 

9.  Glass  Sponge 10 

10.  Hydroids  growing  on  a  Shell  12 

11.  Hydroid  Magnified,  showing 

Spore-sacs 14 

12.  Jelly-fish  (Aurelia  Aurita), 

with    Young    in    various 

Stages 16 

13.  Section  of  Jelly-fish,  showing 

Tubes  and  Mouth 18 

14.  Jelly-fish  (Cyanoea  Enploca- 

mia) 19 

15.  Lasso-cells  from  a  Fresh-wa- 

ter Hydroid  (magnified). .  20 

16.  Mushrooms  of  the  Sea 23 

1 7.  Group  of  Phosphorescent  An- 

imals    24 

18.  "  Portuguese  Man-of-war  "..  28 

19.  Stomach   and   Chambers  of 

Sea-anemone 30 

20.  Cluster  of  Anemones 32 

21.  Sea-anemones  .  „ 34 


PIG.  PAGE 

22.  Branching  Coral  Alive,  with 

Polyps  expanded 37 

23.  Astraea  Pallida  (natural  size)  39 

24.  Mushroom  Coral 40 

25.  Organ-pipe  Coral 41 

26.  Fragment  of  Red  Coral  with 

Polyps 42 

27.  Formation  of  Coral  Reef. . .  44 

28.  An  Atoll . . .  0 47 

29.  Ctenophora 50 

30.  Cilia  on  the  Gills  of  a  Mus- 

sel    52 

31.  Ctenophora  and  Phosphores- 

cent Fishes 54 

Pleurobrachia 55 

Under  Side  of  Ray,  showing 
the  Hollow  Tubes  and  the 
Limestone  Plates  of  the 
Skeleton 57 

34.  Star-fishes  (lower  one  show- 

ing under  side  and  tube- 
feet) 58 

35.  Dining  upon  an  Oyster 59 

36.  Interior  of  Ray 61 

37.  Under  Surface  of  a  Sea-ur- 

chin,  showing    Rows    of 
Suckers  among  the  Spines  63 

38.  Shell  of  a  Sea-urchin  without 

Spines  . . .  „ 64 

39.  Section  of  a  Sea-urchin. .    .  65 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


FIG.  PAGE 

40.  Spine  of  Sea-urchin  (magni- 

fied)    67 

41.  Sand-dollar.. 68 

42.  Keyhole-urchin 69 

43.  A  Living  Crinoid  (West  In- 

dies)   71 

44.  Crinoidal  Limestone 73 

45.  A  Fossil  Crinoid 74 

46.  Sea-cucumbers  (Holothuri- 

ans) 77 

47.  Sea-cucumbers 78 

48.  A  Sea -cucumber  (Pentacta 

Frondosa) 79 

49.  Sea-orange 80 

50.  Earth-worm 83 

51.  Crab 88 

52.  Early  Form  of  the  Crab. . .  91 

53.  Hermit-crab 92 

54.  Fiddler-crab 93 

55.  King-crab 94 

56.  Lobster  (ffomarus  Vulgaris)  97 

57.  Acorn-barnacles 99 

58.  Acorn-barnacle,  with  Arms 

extended TOO 

59.  Body  of  Goose-barnacle. . .    101 

60.  Goose-barnacles 102 

61.  Foot  of  Spider  (magnified).    103 

62.  Geometric  Web  of  Garden- 

spider 104 

63.  Spinnerets  of  Spider 105 

64.  Female  Spider  with  Young 

Ones 106 

65.  Nest  of  Tarantula 108 

66.  Diagram  of  an  Insect 110 

67.  Head    of   a   Bee,   showing 

Compound  Eyes,  Simple 
Eyes,  and  Antennae Ill 

68.  Alimentary  Canal  of  a  Bee- 

tle     112 

69.  Tracheae  of  an  Insect,  show- 

ing Elastic  Spiral  Thread  112 

70.  Butterfly  in  the  Larva,  Pupa, 

and  Imago  State 113 


FIG.  PAGE 

71.  Scales  on  the  Wing  of  a 

Moth 114 

72.  Butterflies 115 

73.  Moth  and  Larvae 117 

74.  Wings  of  a  Bee,  showing 

the  Hooks 119 

75.  A  Bee's  Sting 120 

76.  Nest  of  Carpenter-bee 120 

77.  Nest  of  Humble-bee 121 

78.  Hive -bees 122 

79.  Little  Plunderers 123 

80.  Digger-wasp  —  Cocoon  and 

Larva 128 

81.  Nest  of  Mud-wasp 129 

82.  Nests  of  Social  Wasps 130 

83.  Hornets'  Nest .  . .  131 

84.  Different     Stages     in     the 

Growth  of  a  Mosquito..  133 

85.  Ant     Nest,     with     Under- 

ground Passages 136 

86.  Larva,  Cocoon,  and   Pupae 

of  Red  Ant  (magnified)..  137 

87.  Slave-making  Ant  (magni- 

fied)    138 

88.  Queen     of    Slave  -  making 

Ants  (magnified) 141 

89.  Oyster   in   the  Shell  (with 

mantle,  removed  from  the 

upper  surface) 144 

89a.  Bunch  of  Mussel-shells..  149 

90.  Pearl-bearing  Shells 152 

91.  Pecten  Shell 153 

92.  Inside  of  a  Clam-shell 154 

93.  Clam  (Madra) 156 

94.  Razor-shell  (Solen) 157 

95.  Section    of    a    Spiral    Uni- 

valve   158 

96.  Whelk 159 

97.  Lingual  Ribbons 160 

98.  Clam-shell   bored    by  Lin- 

gual  Ribbon  of  Gaster- 

opod 161 

99.  Sea -shells..  .'162 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


no.  PAGE 

100.  Egg-cases  of  Whelk 163 

101.  Egg-cases  of  Pear-conch.  163 

102.  Natica 164 

103.  Egg-case  of  Natica 164 

104.  Limpet-shell 1 65 

105.  Anatomy  of  a  Snail.  ....  167 

106.  An  Edible  Snail 168 

107.  Octopus 170 

108.  Suckers  on  the  Arm  of  a 

Cuttle-fish 171 

109.  The  Parrot's  Beak 172 

110.  Cuttle-fish  (one -fifth  nat- 

ural size) 173 

111.  The  Squid 174 

112.  Egg-cluster  of  Squid 175 

113.  Argonauts 177 

114.  Pearly  Nautilus,  with  Shell 

cut  open  (one-half  nat- 
ural size) 182 

115.  Ammonite 183 

116.  A  Vertebra 185 

117.  Skeleton  of  a  Lion 186 

118.  Human  Brain  and  Spinal 

Cord  sending  off  Nerves  187 

119.  Arm  and  Leg  of  a  Man  as 

they  are  Seen  when  on 

All  fours 188 

120.  Hind-leg  of  Alligator  and 

Fore-leg  of  Seal. 189 

121.  Fore  and  Hind  Leg  of  a 

Tapir 190 

122.  Blood  Corpuscles  of  Man.  191 

123.  Nest  of  the  Sun-fish 193 

124.  The  Fins  of  a  Fish  (pike- 

perch) 195 

125.  Anatomy  of  the  Carp 197 

126.  Plan    of     Circulation    in. 

Fishes 198 

127.  Flying-fish 199 

128.  Nest  of  the  Stickleback..  200 

129.  The  Sea-horse 201 

130.  Shark 202 

131.  Egg  of  a  Shark   203 


FIG.  PAGE 

132.  A  Fishing  Fleet 206 

133.  Male  Salmon 207 

134.  Salmon-fishing 208 

135.  Female       Salmon      after 

Spawning 209 

136.  The  Frog 211 

137.  Frogs'  Eggs 211 

138.  From  a  Tadpole  to  a  Frog  212 

139.  Skeleton  of  Frog 214 

140.  Toads'  Eggs 215 

141.  Skeleton   of  the  Tortoise 

(plastron  removed).  ...  218 

142.  Box-tortoise 218 

143.  Circulation  in  Reptiles. . .  219 

144.  Green  Turtle 221 

145.  Hawk's-bill  Turtle 222 

146.  Skull  of  Boa-constrictor. .  224 

147.  Poison  Apparatus  of  the 

Rattlesnake 225 

148.  Rattlesnake 227 

149.  Cobra  de  Capello 229 

150.  Lizard 231 

151.  The  Chameleon 232 

152.  The  Iguana 233 

153.  The  Horned  Toad 234 

154.  Crocodile-hunting 236 

155.  Mouth  of  the  Crocodile. .  237 

156.  Alligator 238 

157.  Just  Hatched 239 

158.  Footprints     of     Labyrin- 

thodon 240 

159.  "The  North  Wind." 244 

160.  Skeleton  of  a  Vulture. . .  245 

161.  Bones  of  a  Wing 246 

162.  Leg  of  a  Bird  perching. .  247 

163.  Digestive     Organs    of    a 

Fowl 248 

164.  Plan    of    Circulation    in 

Birds  and  Mammals . . .   249 

165.  Parts  of  a  Feather 251 

166.  Section  of  a   Hen's   Egg 

before  Incubation 254 

167.  Building  the  Nest 255 


Xll 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


FIG. 

168.  Nest  of  the  Tailor-bird  .  .  . 
169.  Nest  of  the  Weaver-bird. 
170.  Wild  Ducks         

PAGE 

257 
258 
260 
261 
263 
264 
265 
265 
266 
267 
268 
269 
271 
272 
273 
274 
275 
278 
279 
281 
282 
285 
286 
287 
288 
289 
290 
291 
293 
294 
295 
296 
296 
297 
298 
299 
300 
303 
305 
306 
307 

308 

FIG.                                                                             PAGE 

210.  Bird-of-paradise  309 

211.  Play-house  of  Bower-bird  310 
212    House-  wrens                          311 

171.  Foot  of  a  Gannet  

213.  Broad  -tailed     Humming- 
birds                                   313 

173.  A  few  Sea-birds 

214.  The  Nightingale  315 
215.  Nest  of  Edible  Swallow.  .   317 
216.  Home  of  the  Bank-  swal- 
low    318 

174.  Sea-gull  

175.  Stormy  Petrel  

176.  The  Albatross  

177.  The  Eider-duck  

217.  Whippoor  wills    ...              319 

178.  Penguin  

218.  Hawk  and  Humming-birds  320 
219.  Claw  and  Beak  of  Bird  of 
Prey....                    ..     321 

179.  Pelicans  

180.  Haunt  of  the  Heron  

181.  Crane  .    . 

220.  The  Golden  Eagle  321 
221.  Eagle's  Nest                          322 

182.  Marabou  Stork  and  Young 
183.  Stork's  Nest  

222.  The    Fish  -hawk    and   its 
Nest  324 

184.  The  Sacred  Ibis  

185.  The  Ostrich  

223.  The  Owl  326 

186.  Hunting  the  Ostrich  

224.  Ornithorhynchus  327 

187.  Emu  and  Wolves   

225.  Burrow    of    Ornithorhyn- 
chus.                        329 

188.  The  Apteryx  

1  89    Peacock 

226.  Ornithorhynchus  and  Por- 
cupine Ant-eater  330 

190.  Argus  Pheasant  

191.  Impeyan  Pheasants  (India) 
192.  A  Partridge  

227.  Heads  and  Feet  of  Duck, 
Ornithorhynchus,      and 
Porcupine  Ant-eater.  .  .   331 
228.  The  Home  of  the  Kangaroo  334 
229.  Kangaroos  335 
230.  Virginia  Opossum                337 

193.  Partridges  in  Winter.  .  .  . 
194.  The  Quail  and  her  Nest.  . 
195.  A  Pigeon-loft  
196.  Dodo  and  Apteryx  

197.  Birds  of  a  Feather  

231.  Sloth  338 

198.  Parrots  

232    Armadillo                               339 

199.  Foot  of  Parrot  

233.  Three-banded  Armadillo.   340 
234.  Armadillos  Rolled  for  Pro- 
tection ....                       341 

200.  Tongue  of  Woodpecker.  . 
201.  Woodpeckers  at  Home.  .  . 
202.  Woodpecker's  Nest 

235.  Great  Ant-eater  342 
236    Megatherium                          343 

203.  Toucan  

204.  Trogon  Elegans  

237.  Whale,    with     its    Young 
Calf  345 

205.  Oriole  feeding  its  Mate.  . 
206.  Frolic  in  the  Snow 

238    Greenland  Whale                 347 

207.  Summer  Yellow-birds  .  .  . 
208.  The  Crossbill 

239.  Whalebone  ...                      348 

240    Sperm-whale                          349 

209.  Two-horned  Hornbill  feed- 

241    Dolphins  .                               350 

242.  The  Narwhal.  .                  .351 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Xlll 


FIO.  PAGE 

243.  Horses .  353 

244.  Group  of  Horses 355 

245.  Zebras 357 

246.  Stag,  or  Red-deer 359 

247.  Stomach  of  a  Ruminating 

Animal 360 

248.  Reindeer  digging  in  Snow  361 

249.  Travelling  in  Lapland .  . .  362 

250.  Antelope 363 

251.  The  Koodoo 364 

252.  The  Gazelle 365 

253.  The  Graceful  Chamois.  . .  366 

254.  Camel 368 

255.  Skeleton  of  a  Camel 369 

256.  Bactrian  Camel 370 

257.  The  Llama 371 

258.  African  Elephants 373 

259.  Indian  Elephants 374 

260.  Lions. 377 

261.  Foot  of  a  Lion..              .  378 


FIO.  PAGE 

262.  Tiger  attacked  by  a  Croco- 

dile    380 

263.  Leopard 381 

264.  Herd  of  Seals 382 

265.  Harp-seal  Mother  and  her 

Little  One 383 

266.  Walruses 385 

267.  Beaver 387 

268.  Skull  of  a  Beaver 389 

269.  Squirrels 391 

270.  Flying- squirrels 393 

271.  Skeleton  of  a  Bat 395 

272.  Bat 397 

273.  White  -  throated  Sapajou.   399 

274.  Mandrill 400 

275.  Skeletons  of  Man,  Chim- 

panzee, and  Orang. . . .  401 

276.  Female  Orang-outang 402 

277.  Chimpanzee 403 

278.  Gorillas  . .  .404 


LIFE 


IN 


THE  SEA  AND  ON  THE  LAND. 


SPONGES. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  PROTOZOA  :    CLASS,  RHIZOPODA. 

1.  Sponges, — Sponges  are  so  common  and  so  familiar 
that  many  of  us  have  used  them  all  our  lives  without 
stopping  to  admire  their  curious  and  interesting  structure, 
or  to  inquire  into  the  history 

of  their  past  lives.  We  may, 
indeed,  have  noticed  that  they 
can  be  squeezed  into  a  very 
small  space,  and  that  they  will 
return  to  their  natural  shape 
when  the  pressure  is  removed. 
Perhaps  we  have  also  noticed 
that  they  are  full  of  little 
holes  or  pores,  and  that  they 
will  absorb  a  large  quantity 
of  water. 

2.  Are  Sponges  Animals  or  Vegetables? — You  know  there 
has  been  a  doubt  whether  sponges  belong  to  the  animal  or 
to  the  vegetable  kingdom.     For  a  long  time  naturalists 

2 


Fig.  1. — SPONGE. 


2       ANIMAL  LIFE   IN   THE   SEA  AND   ON  THE  LAND. 


were  uncertain  about  the  matter,  but  it  is  now 
settled  that  they  are  animals,  living  and  growing 
on  the  bottom  of  the  ocean.     The  only  part  of 
the  sponge  that  reaches  us  is  the  skeleton.    The 
living  sponge  is  a  very  different  object.     Shall 
we  see  what  we  can  find  out  about  it  ? 

3.  Lowest  Forms  of  Animals. — Upon  nam- 
ing the  word  "  animal,"  a  picture  comes  be- 
fore our  minds  of  some  creature  having  a 
mouth  to  eat  with,  and  eyes  to  see  with, 
and   possessing    feet   or  wings,  or   some 
other  means  of  moving  about ;  but  the 
sponges  are  far  from  this.     They  are 
probably  the  lowest  form   of  animals 
with  which  you  are  acquainted.     They 
have  no  nerves,  no  heart,  no  lungs,  no 
mouth,  and  no  stomach. 

4.  Live  Sponges.  —  Live 
sponges     consist 
of   jelly-like 


Fig.  2. — SPONGES  GROWING. 


SPONGES. 

bodies  united  in  a  mass,  and  supported  by  a  framework  of 
horny  fibres,  and  needle-shaped  objects  called  "  spicules," 
which  you  will  see  in  Fig.  3,  and  which  we  must  examine 
further  after  a  while.  This  jelly-like 
flesh,  covering  all  parts  of  the  skele- 
ton, is  about  as  thick  as  the  white 
of  an  egg,  and  it  decays  immedi- 
ately after  the  death  of  the  sponge. 
During  life  the  flesh  presents  many 
bright  colors;  in  some  species  it  is  Fjg  3_GROUPS  OF  Spic. 
of  a  brilliant  green,  while  in  others  .  ULES. 

it  is  orange,  red,  or  yellow. 

5.  Framework.  —  The    framework    varies    in    different 
kinds  of  sponges.     In  those  which  are  valuable  for  our  use 
this  framework  consists  of  horny  fibres  interwoven  in  all 
directions  until  they  form  a  mass  of  lacy  net-work.     This 
you  can  easily  see  with  the  naked  eye,  but  by  looking 
through  a  microscope  you  will  see  beauty  you  had  not 
imagined.     In  our  ordinary  sponges  these  fibres  are  all 
that  remain  of  the  former  living  animal,  the  soft  flesh 
with  which  they  were  covered  having  been  removed.     It 
is  found  that  the  horny  fibres  are  composed  of  a  substance 
very  similar  to  the  silk  of  a  silk-worm's  cocoon.    They  are 
exceedingly  tough  and  durable. 

6.  Use  of  Pores.  —  In  looking  at  any  sponge  you  will 
notice  large  holes  through  it,  with  many  small  pores  scat- 
tered between  them.     The  living  sponge  draws  in  water 
through  these  small  pores,  and  countless  streams  are  con- 
tinually flowing  through  every  part  of  the  sponge,  bring- 
ing in  little  particles  of  food,  and  all  the  air  it  needs  for 
breathing  purposes. 

7.  Cilia,  and  the  Currents  they  produce.— In  order  that 
we  may  understand  the  curious  circulation  in  sponges,  let 


4       ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

us  examine  Fig.  4,  which  shows  a  small  section  of  a  sponge 
with  its  branching  canals.  One  large  hole  is  shown  at  d 
and  the  smaller  pores  at  #,  while  in  those  cup-shaped  hollow 


Fig.  4. — CIRCULATION  OF  WATER  THROUGH  THE  SPONGE. 

places  in  the  canals  marked  c  we  may  see  a  number  of  fine 
threads,  or  "  cilia."  The  word  cilia  means  "  eyelashes,"  but 
we  must  not  mistake  these  threads  for  hairs  like  our  eye- 


Fig.  5. — LIVING  SPONGE  IN  ACTION. 


lashes,  because  they  are,  in  fact,  formed  of  soft,  delicate 
flesh.  It  is  their  business  to  wave  gently  but  continually, 
and  thus  urge  onward  the  flowing  current  of  water.  Notic- 


SPONGES. 


5 


ing  the  arrows,  we  may  now  follow  the  direction  of  the 
tiny  streams  as  they  enter  the  small  pores,  pass  through  the 
canals,  and  are  finally  thrown  out  from  the  large  holes  on 
the  surface.  With  a  microscope  little  fountains  like  those 
represented  in  Fig.  5  may 
be  seen  constantly  play- 
ing from  the  large  holes 
of  a  living  sponge. 

8.  How  Sponges  Eat.— 
Everything  that  lives 
must    eat    and    breathe, 
but  how  is  the  sponge  to 
eat    without     a    mouth  ? 
When    the   food   touches 
any  part  of  its  body,  the 
soft,  jelly-like  flesh  sinks 
in  to  form  a  little  bag,  and 
at  the  same  time  the  sur- 
rounding parts  creep  out 
over  the  morsel  of  food 
until  it  is  entirely  covered 
and  digested.     After  this 
the    flesh    returns    to    its 
original  position,  and  any 
shell  or  other  refuse  that 
remains  from  the  meal  is 
washed  away. 

9.  The  Young.-Sponges  Fig  6._NEPTUNK,S  GLOVB. 
have  a  curious  manner  of 

producing  their  young.  At  certain  seasons  very  small 
oval  masses  of  jelly  are  formed  on  the  inner  surface  of 
the  canals,  which  finally  drop  off.  They  remain  in  the 
canals  for  a  time,  and  become  perfect  eggs,  after  which 


6       ANIMAL   LIFE    IN  THE   SEA    AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

they  are  thrown  out  by  the  water  forming  the  little  foun- 
tains, and  instead  of  falling  to  the  bottom,  as  we  might 
suppose  such  helpless  masses  of  jelly  would  do,  they  swim 
around  as  if  they  meant  to  have  a  little  sport  before  com- 
mencing the  sober  realities  of  life. 

10.  Food  for  other  Animals. — You  will  be  interested  to 
know  that  while  these  jelly-like  eggs  were  resting  in  the 
canals  of  the  parent  sponge,  delicate  cilia  (which  we  learn- 
ed about  just  now)  were  forming  at  one  end  of  the  egg. 
These  cilia  strike  the  water  with  a  rapid  motion,  and  the 
eggs  are  rowed  about  through  it  until  they  settle  down 
and  attach  themselves  to  some  rock  or  shell  on  the  bot- 
tom of  the  ocean,  and  finally  grow  up  into  the  perfect 
sponge.     The  waters  are   swarming  with  these   eggs  at 
certain  seasons,  and  great  quantities  of  them  are  eaten  by 
larger  animals. 

11.  Size  and  Shape. — Sponges  are  common  in  nearly  all 
parts  of  the  world,  and  they  differ  greatly  in  size  and 
quality,  but  only  a  few  species  are  useful  to  man.     Some 
species  are  nearly  round,  others  are  always  cup-shaped, 
some  top  -  shaped,  and  some  branched.      A  fresh  -  water 
sponge  is  frequently  found  in  our  streams,  growing  upon 
sticks  and  stones.     It   is    of  a   bright   green,   and   when 
seen  under  the  water  in  the  sunlight  it  is  very  pretty. 

1 2.  Spicules  of  Sponges. — The  spicules  of  sponges  grow 
in  a  variety  of  elegant  shapes;  generally  they  are  visible 
only  with  a  microscope.     They  are  composed  of  lime  or 
flint,  and  are  usually  sharp-pointed.     They  are  embedded 
in  the  flesh  as  well  as  in  the  horny  fibres,  thus  serving 
to  protect  the  helpless  creatures  from  being  devoured  by 
fish  and  other  animals.     In  our  fine  sponges  the  skeleton 
is  almost  destitute  of  spicules,  while  in  some  others  these 
spicules  are  very  numerous  and  wholly  support  the  flesh. 


Fig.  7. — VKNUS'S  FLOVVKR-BASKET. 


SPONGES. 


Fig.  8. — SPONGE-FISHING. 


Such  sponges  are  so  loose  in 
texture  that  they  are  of  no  val- 
ue for  domestic  purposes. 

13.  Where    Found, —  Fine 
sponges  are   used  by  physicians 
in   surgical   operations,  and    are 
sometimes  very    expensive.      Our 
finest  sponges  come  from  the  Med- 
iterranean Sea  and  the  Red  Sea.     They 

are  obtained  by  divers,  who  search  for  them  under  rocks 
and  cliffs,  and  who  remove  them  carefully  with  a  knife, 
that  they  may  not  be  injured.  The  Turks,  who  carry  on 
the  trade,  have  between  four  and  five  thousand  men  em- 
ployed in  collecting  'sponges,  and  the  value  of  those  col- 
lected each  year  is  estimated  at  ninety  thousand  dollars. 
Coarse  varieties  are  found  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and 
the  Bahama  Islands.  They  are  scraped  off  the  rocks  with 
forked  instruments,  and  consequently  they  are  often  torn. 

14.  Method  of  Culture.  —  The  demand  for  sponges  has 


10         ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA    AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


increased  so  much  during  the  last  few  years  that  there 
is  cause  to  fear  the  supply  will  be  exhausted,  unless  some 
way  can  be  found  to  cultivate  them  by  artificial  means. 
With  this  view,  attempts  have  recently  been  made  to  raise 
sponges  in  the  Adriatic  Sea  and  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
by  taking  cuttings  from  full-grown  ones  and  fastening 
them  upon  stones  on  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  until  they 
attach  themselves.  These  experiments  have  been  success- 
ful, but  the  operation  is  a  delicate  one,  requiring  great 
care  not  to  bruise  the  soft  flesh.  It  is  necessary  to  keep 

the  sponge  under  sea-water 
during  the  process. 

15.  Glass  Sponges. — Some  of 
the  glass  sponges  are  exceed 
ingly  beautiful.  One  of  these, 
the  delicate  "  Venus's  flower-bas- 
ket," grows  in  the  deep  sea 
near  the  Philippine  Islands.  It 
looks  like  spun- glass  woven  into 
a  beautiful  pattern,  and  is  so  ex- 
quisite we  can  scarcely  believe 
that  it  is  the  skeleton  of  a 
sponge.  Fig.  9  shows  another 
variety  of  glass  sponge  found 
between  Gibraltar  and  the  island 
of  Madeira  by  the  scientific  par- 
ty on  board  the  famous  Chal- 
lenger, which  ship  was  sent  out 
by  the  British  Government  to 
explore  the  animal  and  vege- 
table wonders  of  the  great  deep. 

16.  Boring  Sponges. — The  "boring  sponge"  spreads  it- 
self over  the  shells  of  oysters  and  mussels,  boring  them 


Fig.  9. — GLASS  SPONGE. 


SPONGES.  11 

through  and  through,  and  dissolving  the  shell.  It  even 
bores  into  solid  marble,  and  will,  in  time,  completely  de- 
stroy it. 

17.  Flints  are  exceedingly  hard  substances,  yet  they  are 
supposed  to  have  been  formed  from  soft  sponges.  By 
examining  small  pieces  of  flint  under  a  microscope  the 
texture  of  the  sponge,  in  a  fossil  condition,  is  often  clearly 
seen,  and  the  spicules  peculiar  to  sponges  are  recognized. 


12      ANIMAL   LIFE    IN   THE   SEA    AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


II. 

HYDROIDS. 

SOME  ODD  RELATIONS  OF  THE  JELLY-FISHES. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  CCELENTERATA  :    CLASS,  HYDROZOA. 

1.  Hydroids,  or  Sea-firs. — Let  us  now  examine  some  odd- 
looking  animals  called  "  hydroids,"  or  sea-firs,  which  grow 

in  the  ocean,  firmly  rooted 
upon  the  bottom,  or  at- 
tached to  shells  and  stones. 
The  tall  branches  in  Fig.  10 
are  hydroids  growing  upon 
the  shell  of  a  dead  mussel. 
A  barnacle,  too,  has  lived  and 
died  on  this  pretty  shell,  and 
little  sea-weeds  cluster  around 
its  remains. 

2.  Related  to  Jelly-fishes.— 
We  can  scarcely  imagine  an- 
imals that  are  more  unlike 
jelly-fishes  than  these  slender 
branching  hydroids  are;  and 
yet  the  wonderful  story  I 

have  to  tell  you  will  show 
Jng.  10. — HYDROIDS  GROWING  ON  A 

SHELL.  them  to  be  so  closely  related 

that  we  could  not  study  the 
life  of  one  without  studying  the  life  of  the  other. 

3.  Their  Resemblance  to  Plants.— Long  graceful  sprays 


HYDROIDS.  13 

of  hydroids  are  often  thrown  on  shore  by  the  tide,  and  as 
they  resemble  plants  much  more  than  animals,  they  are 
generally  mistaken  for  sea-weeds.  Many  persons  gather 
them  for  decorating  brackets  and  hanging-baskets,  and  we 
frequently  see  bunches  of  them  arranged  in  sea-shells,  and 
offered  for  sale  in  our  shops.  The  shopkeeper  would  prob- 
ably not  know  them  by  any  other  name  than  sea- weed. 
Still,  they  are  animals,  and  we  can  mostly  recognize  them 
by  their  yellow,  horny  appearance,  and  by  the  numerous 
joints  on  their  stems. 

4.  Each  Spray-point  bears  a  Cup. — In  looking  at  one  of 
these  sprays  with  a  microscope  you  will  find  each  little 
point  on  the  stem  to  be  in  reality  a  dainty  cup,  which 
when  alive  contained  a  hungry  animal.     Should  you  find 
a  piece  freshly  washed  up  from  the  ocean,  it  would  be 
well  to  place  it  in  a  glass  jar  filled  with  sea-water,  and 
after  allowing  it  to  remain  perfectly  still  for  a  while,  it 
may  perhaps  show  you,  if  it  is  yet  alive,  how  it  has  been 
accustomed  to  pass  the  quiet  hours  in  its  native  home. 

5.  Hydroids  higher  in  the  Scale  of  Life  than  Sponges. — 
You  will  find  each  cup  occupied  by  a  soft  animal,  with 
a  mouth  in  the  centre  opening  directly  into  the  stomach. 
Hydroids,  you  see,  are  higher  in  the  scale  of  life  than 
sponges,  for  they  possess  mouths  and  stomachs.     As  we 
watch,  the  body  of  the  animal  will  rise  up  in  the  cup,  and 
from  around  the  mouth  will  gradually  creep  out  slender 
thread-like  feelers,  which  may  be  extended  quite  a  dis- 
tance, or  drawn  up  at  will  entirely  within  the  body  of  the 
animal.     You  will,  of  course,  wish  to  use  the  proper  name 
for  these  feelers.     They  are  called  tentacles,  and  they  evi- 
dently serve  to  produce  currents  of  water  towards  the 
mouth,  and  to  bring  the  required  food.     In  this  way  the 
little  animals  live,  day  after  day  and  year  after  year,  pa- 


14      ANIMAL    LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 


tiently  waving  their  tentacles,  and  waiting  for  the  food 
that  is  sure  to  come. 

6.  How  Hydroids  produce  Jelly-fishes.— Do  you  ask  what 
connection  there  is  between  these  quiet  little  animals  and 
the  active  jelly-fishes  ?  We  shall  soon  see.  The  hydroids 
have  grown  by  budding  and  branching  somewhat  as  plants 
do.  Occasionally  pear-shaped  cups  much  larger  than 
those  we  have  looked  at  are  formed  on  the  stem.  These 
large  cups  are  called  spore  -  sacs. 
They  contain  the  substances  which, 
later,  will  grow  into  eggs,  and  at  the 
proper  time  they  fall  off.  After 
resting  a  while,  and  throwing  out 
cilia  and  tentacles,  these  spore-sacs 
swim  gayly  away,  and,  strange  to 
relate,  they  are  henceforth  known 
by  the  name  of  jelly-fishes! 

7.  The  Spore-sacs, — In  Fig.  11  you 
will  see  a  spray  of  hydroid  magni- 
fied which  shows  two  spore-sacs.  In 
the  species  which  is  represented  here 
(the  Sertularia)  the  spore-sacs  do  not 
fall  off,  but  they  burst  and  discharge 
the  eggs  which  they  contain.  These 
jelly-fishes  now  lead  active  lives,  and 
as  they  dart  and  swim  about  in  the 
water  no  one  would  suspect  that  they  had  any  relation 
to  the  plant-like  animals  with  which  we  started,  yet  it  is 
supposed  that  most  hydroids  have  this  wonderful  history. 
8.  The  Young  unlike  their  Parents. — Jelly-fishes  produce 
eggs,  from  which  are  born  little  floating  bodies.  These 
after  a  time  fasten  themselves  to  some  stick  or  stone,  and 
grow  by  budding  until  they  become  the  elegant  feathery 


Fig.  11. — HYDROID  MAG- 
NIFIED, SHOWING  SPORE- 
SACS. 


HYDROIDS.  15 

branches  which  we  must  now  call  hydroids.  The  young 
of  nearly  all  animals  resemble  their  parents,  but  the  chil- 
dren of  jelly-fishes,  you  see,  are  very  different  from  the 
jelly-fish  itself.  In  the  next  generation,  however,  we  shall 
find  jelly-fishes  again. 

9.  Difference  between  Plants  and  low  Forms  of  Animal 
Life. — Most  of  the  plant-like  objects  which  we  are  accus- 
tomed to  see  growing  near  the  shore  are  in  reality  hy- 
droids.    Has  it  ever  puzzled  you  to  know  the  difference 
between  plants  and  these  low  forms  of  animal  life  ?     One 
very  important  difference  is  that  most  plants  can  procure 
their  food   directly  from  the  soil,  whereas   animals   are 
obliged  to  feed  upon  living  substances,  or  those  which 
have  at  some  time  been  alive,  as  vegetables  and  animals. 

10.  Found  in  all  Parts  of  the  Ocean  growing  in  Families. 
— Hydroids  grow  in  all  parts  of  the  ocean,  in  deep  water 
as  well  as  near  the  coast.     Some  of  them  are  three  feet 
high.     One  branch  may  contain  a  hundred  thousand  dis- 
tinct animals,  the  only  communication  between  them  being 
a  circulation  of  fluid  through  the  hollow  stems.     In  this 
way  each  Branch  constitutes  a  family  which  has  sprung 
originally  from  the  same  little  egg.     Some  varieties  never 
grow  tall,  and  as  they  occur  in  patches  over  rocks  and 
shells,  they  resemble  thick  beds  of  moss. 

11.  Another  Manner  of  producing  Jelly-fishes. — The  lit- 
tle hydroids  which  we  see  hanging  from  the  under  side  of 
a  rock  in  Fig.  12  produce  jelly-fishes  in  a  different  man- 
ner from  the  one  I  have  described,  although  it  is  equally 
remarkable.     This  hydroid  has  no  buds  or  branches,  but 
the  main  tube  of  the  body  divides  itself  into  a  number  of 
rings  or  plates,  until  the  whole  animal  looks  somewhat  like 
a  pile  of  tiny  saucers  with  scalloped  edges.     Finally  the 
upper  plate  begins  to  twist  and  squirm  until  it  loosens 


16     ANIMAL    LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

itself  from  the  pile,  and  floats  off  to  lead  the  gay  and  in- 
dependent  life  of  a  jelly-lish.  It  is  followed  by  the  other 
plates  in  their  turn,  each  making  a  separate  animal.  These 
new  jelly-fishes  eat  greedily  and  grow  fast,  forming  some 
of  our  largest  varieties. 


Fig.  12. — JELLY-FISH  (AURELIA  AURITA),  WITH  YOUNG  IN  VARIOUS  STAGES. 

12.  We  can  form  but  little  idea  of  the  immense  num- 
bers of  animals  living  in  the  ocean  and  drawing  from  the 
surrounding  water  all  that  is  needed  for  their  support. 
They  cannot  go  in  search  of  food,  and  they  take  only 
such  as  floats  towards  them.  Still,  they  seem  to  have 
some  choice  in  the  matter,  as  they  reject  from  their 
mouths  any  food  they  are  not  suited  with.  Many  of 
these  curious  animals  have  bright  colors,  and  surrounded 
as  they  are  with  a  great  variety  of  plants,  they  give  to 
the  bottom  of  the  ocean  a  marvellous  beauty. 


HYDROIDS.  17 

13.  Does  it  not  seem  strange  that  the  slender,  delicate 
sprays  of  which  we  have  been  speaking  are  really  animals, 
and  more  than  that,  the  children  of  jelly-fishes  ?  A  little 
girl  once  exclaimed,  on  hearing  of  these  wonderful  changes 
that  happen  in  the  life  of  hydroids,  "  Why,  it  seems  almost 
like  a  fairy-tale  !" 


18      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE  SEA  AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


III. 

JELLY-FISHES. 

BUB-KINGDOM,  CCELENTEBATA :   CLASS,  HYDROZOA. 

1.  Jelly-fishes.  —  When  jelly-fishes  are  seen  lying  in 
shapeless  masses  upon  the  beach,  where  they  have  been 
washed  by  the  tide,  their  appearance  is  not  attractive. 
If,  however,  we  can  watch  them  from  the  side  of  a  boat, 
or  from  a  long  pier,  as  they  dart 
through  the  water  with  their  ten- 
tacles trailing  after  them,  we  shall 
soon  learn  to  admire  their  graceful 
movements  and  their  elegant  colors. 
There  is  something  very  interesting 
too  in  these  little  inhabitants  of 
the  great  deep.  They  are  such  soft, 
helpless  things,  yet  they  live  and 
have  their  own  good  times  if  only 
the  boisterous  waves  do  not  catch 
them  and  dash  them  too  harshly 
against  the  rough  shore. 

2.  Jelly-fishes  a  single  Bell-shaped 
Mass. — Jelly-fishes  consist  of  a  sin- 
gle bell-shaped  mass  of  jelly,  from  the  inner  surface  of 
which  hangs  the  body  of  the  animal,  with  the  mouth  in 
the  centre.  The  mouth  opens  directly  into  the  stomach, 
from  which  several  hollow  tubes  (usually  four)  extend  to 
a  circular  tube  around  the  edge  of  the  bell.  In  the  jelly- 


Fig.  13. — SECTION  OF  JEL- 
LY-FISH, SHOWING  TUBES 
AND  MOUTH. 


JELLY-FISHES. 


19 


fish  (Fig.  13,  a),  the  side  next  to  us  has  been  removed, 
that  we  may  see  the  tubes  and  the  mouth  hanging  in  the 
centre;  b  shows  us  the  same  viewed  from  below. 

3.  Eggs  of  Jelly-fishes.  —  The  eggs  of  jelly-fishes  are 
formed  in  large  quantities    in  the   tubes   leading   from 
the    centre.      Fig. 

13    shows    the    en-  ,-, 

larged  cavities  con- 
taining eggs.  At 
certain  seasons  of 
the  year  great  clus- 
ters of  bright -col- 
ored eggs  may  be 
seen  through  the 
transparent  flesh. 
A  few  jelly-fishes 
are  thought  to  pro- 
duce young  ones 
resembling  them- 
selves,without  pass- 
ing through  the 
strange  forms  we 
noticed  in  studying  ^^ 
hydroids. 

4.  How  they  Move. 
—  Hydroids,    you 

will  remember,  are 

abundant  in  all  oceans;  so  are  jelly-fishes,  and  they  are 
often  found  floating  in  large  companies.  Jelly-fishes  are 
propelled  by  alternately  taking  in  and  throwing  out  water 
under  the  bell.  This  gives  them  a  jerking  movement,  as 
though  caused  by  breathing.  They  come  to  the  surface 
chiefly  when  the  water  is  quiet,  and,  as  they  like  the 


Fig.  14. — JKLLY-FISII  (CYANCEA  ENPLOCAMIA) 


20      ANIMAL    LIFE    IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


warm  sun,  you  will  not  see  many  of  them  at  an  early 
hour  in  the  day.  They  are  easily  alarmed.  If  they  meet 
with  an  obstacle  in  their  course,  or  if  they  are  touched 
by  an  enemy,  the  bell  contracts,  the  tentacles  are  instantly 
drawn  up,  and  the  creature  sinks  in  the  water. 

5.  Beginnings  of  Eyes  and  Ears. — Upon  the  outer  edge 
of  the  bell  there  are  bright-colored  specks  and  solid  spots, 
which  are  thought  to  be  the  beginnings  of  eyes  and  ears. 
Although  these  spots  never  grow  to  be  perfect  eyes  and 
ears  in  the  jelly-fish,  they  promise  that  Nature  has  in  store 
for  her  children  the  precious  gifts  of  sight  and  hearing. 
Such  imperfect  organs  are  called 
by  the  wise  men  rudimentary  or- 
gans. This  is  the  lowest  animal 
in  which  anything  corresponding 
to  our  nerves  is  found. 

6.  Power  of  Contracting  and  Ex- 
panding their  Tentacles. — Delicate 
fringes  and  tentacles  hang  from 
the  lower  edge  of  the  bell,  add- 
ing greatly  to  its  beauty.  The 
tentacles  are  often  many  feet 
long,  yet  the  animal  has  the  pow- 
er of  drawing  them  up  so  that 
they  are  not  visible.  This  curi- 
ous power  of  contracting  and 
expanding  the  tentacles  belongs 
to  many  humble  sea  creatures. 
Sometimes,  while  we  are  wonder- 
ing at  their  disappearance,  they 
lengthen  again  as  if  by  magic. 

7.  How  Jelly-fishes  secure  Food.— The  tentacles  of  jelly- 
fishes  are  covered  with  a  great  many  lasso-cells.     These 


Fig.  15. — LASSO-CKI.LS  FROM 
A  FRKSH- WATER  HYDROID 
(MAGNIFIED). 

«,  Barbed  Dart  within  the  cell ; 
6,  Barbed  Dart  escaped  from 
the  cell;  c,  Lasso  fully  ex- 
tended, carrying  the  dart  at 
the  end. 


JELLY-  FISHES. 

lasso -cells  are  too  small  to  be  seen  without  a  micro- 
scope ;  still,  they  are  powerful  weapons  in  their  way, 
and  are  quite  sufficient  to  enable  the  jelly-fish  to 
catch  its  food.  You  know  how  the  skilful  hunter  uses 
a  lasso  for  catching  wild  cattle.  The  jelly-fish  uses  its 
lasso  in  quite  a  different  manner,  but  it  may  be  equally 
effective. 

8.  Lasso-cell. — When  examined,  each  lasso-cell,  or  little 
sac,  is  found  to  contain  a  long  slender  thread  coiled  within 
it,  somewhat  like  a  lasso,  and  floating  in  a  fluid.     The  cell 
is  filled  so  full  of  the  fluid  that  it  bursts  with  the  slightest 
touch,  and  as  the  fluid  squirts  out,  it  carries  with  it  the 
slender  lasso  armed  with  sharp  stings.     In  this  way  lassos 
are  darted  out  to  capture  many  little  crabs  or  fishes  that 
brush  too  near  in  passing. 

9.  Description  and  Use  of  Lasso.  — The  sting  of  the  lasso 
seems  to  paralyze  the  unfortunate  creatures,  and  they  make 
no  effort  to  escape  as  the  tentacles  coil  round  them  and 
carry  them  to  the   mouth  of  the  greedy  jelly-fish.      In 
Fig.  15  you  will  see  a  group  of  lasso -cells  highly  mag- 
nified.     The  cell  at  a  has  not  yet  burst,  and  through  its 
thin  walls  we  see  the  barbed  dart  at  the  end  of  the  lasso. 
At  b  the  lasso  has  been  thrown  out  only  a  short  distance, 
while  at  c  the  long  slender  lasso  still  carries  the  dart  at  the 
end,  and  the  curious  little  bladder  is  much  larger  than  it 
was  inside  the  cell.     The  lasso  of  this  specimen  is  exceed- 
ingly delicate  and  simple,  while  that  of  some  animals  is 
covered  with  stinging  bristles.     Is  it  not  a  dainty  weapon 
to  be  used  in  the  continual  warfare  carried  on  by  these 
innocent-looking  creatures  ?     Small  as  the  lassos  are,  they 
serve  to  protect  the  soft- bodied  animals  from  their  nu- 
merous enemies. 

10.  Sea-nettles— Medusae. — If  we  should  touch  the  soft, 


22     ANIMAL   LIFE   IN  THE   SEA  AND   ON  THE   LAND. 

pretty  tentacles  of  a  jelly-fish,  we  should  probably  be  stung 
by  these  tiny  weapons.  This  irritation  is  produced  in  the 
flesh  by  the  numerous  sharp  points  on  the  lassos,  and  is 
similar  to  the  stinging  of  nettles.  For  this  reason  jelly- 
fishes  are  often  called  sea  -  nettles.  The  correct  name, 
however,  which  you  will  find  in  scientific  books,  is  "Me- 
dusae." 

11.  Size. — Jelly-fishes  vary  greatly  in  size.     Some  are 
mere  dots,  so  extremely  small  that  we  might  not  notice 
them  in  the  water,  while  one  species  is  said  to  be  seven 
feet  in  diameter,  with  tentacles   measuring  fifty  feet  in 
length.     The  parent  of  this  huge  jelly-fish  was  a  hydroid 
only  half  an  inch  high.     Its  children  will  be  the  same. 
What  do  you  think  its  grandchildren  will  be  ? 

12.  Nature  of  the  Jelly-like  Flesh.— The  jelly-like  flesh 
of  these  animals  consists  largely  of  water,  and  a  specimen 
weighing  several  pounds  when  alive  will  shrink  away  to 
almost  nothing  if  exposed  to  the  sun  and  the  wind.     As 
the  body  contains  no  bones  or  other  solid  matter,  it  all 
perishes  together,  and  no  trace  is  left  of  its  former  beau- 
tiful shape.     You  will  see  that  jelly-fishes  are  in  no  way 
like  real  fishes.     As  they  float  on  the  ocean  they  look 
more  like  fantastic  mushrooms,  and  one  writer  has  called 
them  "  Mushrooms  of  the  Sea." 

13.  Color.  —  It  would  be  impossible  to  describe  the  va- 
ried colors  of  jelly  -  fishes,  as  they  include  almost  every 
hue,  the  beautiful  tints   being   probably  heightened  by 
their  transparency.     All  shades   are  to  be  found,  from 
pale  blue   and  pink  to  bright  red  and  yellow.      Those 
found  in  tropical  seas  are  of  a  deeper  color  than  ours. 

14.  One  Delicate  Kind. — In  striking  contrast  with  these 
brilliant  jelly-fishes  is  one  species  which  is  so  delicate  and 
transparent  that  as  it  floats  upon  the  water  we  can  scarce- 


JELLY-FISHES. 


ly  see  the  sub- 
stance of  which 
it  is  composed. 
The  only  parts  that 
strike  the  eye  are 
the  circular  tube  around 
the  edge  and  the  four  ra- 
diating  tubes   with  their         Fig.  16. — MUSHROOMS  OF  THK  SEA. 
large    clusters    of    eggs. 

The  tubes  look  as  if  they  were  held  together  by  some 
slight  web.     This  jelly-fish  is  extremely  languid  in  its 


24      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON    THE   LAND. 

movements,  and  it  sometimes  remains  perfectly  quiet  in  the 
bright  sunshine  for  hours,  not  even  moving  its  tentacles. 

15.  Phosphorescence.— Although  jelly-fishes  are  so  brill- 
iant in  the  daytime,  they  have  a  different  beauty  at  night, 
when  they  throw  out  a  golden  light  slightly  tinged  with 
green,  resembling  that  of  a  glowworm.  Vast  numbers 
of  small  animals  in  the  sea  have  this  power  of  giving 
light  from  their  bodies.  The  light  is  called  phosphores- 


GROUP  OF  PHOSPIIORESCKNT  ANIMALS. 


cence.  As  it  may  be  seen  at  any  time  of  the  year  illti- 
rairjiatir»g  all  oceans,  it  is  an  unfailing  source  of  delight 
to  voyagers.  It  is  most  conspicuous  on  a  dark  night, 
when  the  water  is  agitated  by  the  motion  of  a  boat,  or  by 


JELLY-FISHES.  25 

the  breaking  waves.     In  Fig.  17  is  a  group  of  the  larger 
phosphorescent  animals. 

16.  A  pail  of  sea-water  carried  into  a  dark  room  often 
affords  a  good  opportunity  for  studying  this  interesting 
phenomenon.     Although  we  may  not  have  detected  the 
presence  of  any  animals  before,  when  the  water  is  stirred 
or  jostled  we  may  see  the  beautiful  sparkles  of  light.    The 
phosphorescence  of  some  animals  is  of  a  bluish  tint;  in 
others  it  is  red,  like  flame. 

17.  A  person  will  rarely  tire  of  watching  a  boat  as  its 
prow  turns  up  a  furrow  of  liquid  fire,  and  each  dip  of 
the  oar  sends  a  miniature  flash  of  lightning  through  the 
otherwise  dark  water. 


26      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


IV. 
THE  "PORTUGUESE  MAN-OF-WAR." 

SUB-KINGDOM,  CCELENTERATA :   CLASS,  HYDROZOA. 

1.  SOME  one  has  probably  imagined  that  this  curious 
floating  animal  looks  like  a  Portuguese  war  vessel,  and 
on  that  account  has  given  to  the  innocent  and  defenceless 
creature  a  name  which   seems  to  us  very  inappropriate. 
We  will  not  be  dismayed,  however,  by  a  forbidding  name, 
for  the  graceful  animal  is  not  in  the  least  warlike.     It 
is  to  be  hoped  you  may  all  have  the  pleasure  some  day 
of  seeing  one  floating  over  the  sea  like  a  fairy  vessel,  not 
minding  the  winds  or  the  storms.     You  will  be  delighted 
with  its  beauty,  and  you  will  wonder  how  so  frail  a  bark 
can  withstand  the  waves. 

2.  Shape  and  Color. — When  we  examine  the  Portuguese 
Man-of-war  we   shall  find   it  to  be  a  transparent  pear- 
shaped  bladder,  about  nine  inches  long,  throwing  off,  like 
a  soap-bubble,  bright  blue  colors  tinged  with  green,  vio- 
let, and  crimson.     On  top  of  the  bladder  there  is  a  wavy, 
crumpled  crest  of  delicate  pink.    This  may  perhaps  act  as 
a  sail. 

3.  A  Colony  of  Animals. — From  one  end  of  the  bottom 
hangs  a  large  bunch  of  curious  -  looking,  bright  -  colored 
threads,  and  bags,  and  coiled  tentacles  which  trail  after 
it.     You  will  see  these  streamers  in  the  picture,  and  you 
may  be  surprised  to  learn  that  they  are  separate  animals, 
forming  a  little  colony,  which  is  floated  by  the  bladder. 


THE   "PORTUGUESE   MAN-OF-WAR."  27 

Still,  they  are  not  entirely  distinct;  they  have  various 
uses,  and  each  contributes  its  share  to  the  good  of  the 
colony.  Some  produce  eggs,  some  do  the  swimming,  some 
do  the  eating,  and  others  are  provided  with  lasso-cells  to 
procure  food. 

4.  The  Food  taken  by  One  nourishes  All. — In  such  col- 
onies of  animals  as  this,  the  food  which  is  taken  by  one 
individual  helps  to  nourish  all  the  others.     This  is  accom- 
plished by  the  circulation  of  fluids  throughout  the  whole 
colony,  carrying  nourishment  to  each  one. 

5.  Organs  Defined. — In  animals  that  are  more  highly  de- 
veloped we  shall  find  these  offices  performed  by  special 
parts  of  the  same  body.     These  different  portions  of  the 
body,  which  are  set  apart 'to  perform  certain  duties,  are 
called  organs.     Thus  we  speak  of  the  eye  as  the  organ  of 
sight,  and  the  ear  as  the  organ  of  hearing. 

6.  Length  of  Tentacles. — The  tentacles   of  the  Portu- 
guese Man-of-war  are  more  than  twenty  feet  long,  yet 
they  may  be  drawn  up  to  within  an  inch  of  the  bladder. 
The  lasso -cells  upon  their  surface  not  only  wound  the 
prey,  but  also  sting  bathers  or  any  persons  who  come  in 
contact  with  them.     Even  after  death  the  tentacles  pro- 
duce irritation  when  they  are  touched. 

7.  Where  Found. — These  beautiful  creatures  are  found 
in  tropical  seas.     They  are  abundant  in  the  Gulf  of  Mex- 
ico, and  are  often  carried  by  the  Gulf  Stream  into  North- 
ern waters.     Occasionally  they  drift  upon  our  own  shore. 
Do  you  think  you  would  recognize  one  floating  on  the 
ocean  when  you  had  not  expected  to  see  it  ?     If  you 
should  ever  have  one  in  your  possession,  it  may  be  well 
to  dry  it  or  keep  it  in  alcohol ;  for  although  its  delicate 
beauty  cannot  be  preserved,  it  will  still  be  interesting  to 
those  who  have  never  seen  living  ones. 


28      ANIMAL  LIFE  IN  THE  SEA  AND  ON  THIS  LAND. 


8.  In  watch- 
ing the  "  Por- 
tuguese Man- 
of-war"  you 
will  find,  at 
times,  that 
some  of  its 
tentacles  are 
drawn  up  so  as 
scarcely  to  be 
seen ;  but  sud- 
denly  these 
are  let  down, 
and  others  dis- 
appear. Soon  they  may  all  be  extended  to  their 
full  length,  then  strangely  curled  and  twisted. 
9.  Floating  in  Companies.— One  might  sup- 
pose these  animals  were  fond  of  society,  since 
they  are  sometimes  seen  floating  in  large  com- 
panies, which  have  been  fancifully  called  fleets. 
Travellers  occasionally  speak  of  meeting  great 
numbers  of  them,  both  large  and  small,  stud- 
ding the  surface  of  the  ocean:  probably  the 
young  ones  were  out  sailing  with  their  parents. 


18. — "PORTUGUESE  MAN-OF-WAR.' 


SEA- ANEMONES.  29 


V. 
i  SEA-ANEMONES. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  CCELENTERATA :   CLASS,  ACTINOZOA. 

1.  Ocean  Treasures.  —  Many   of    you,  no    doubt,  have 
learned,  when  at  the  sea  -  shore,  the  delight  of  climbing 
over  wet  rocks  covered  with  slippery  sea-weed,  and  peer- 
ing into  the  little  pools  left  between  the  stones  to  see  if 
the  great  waves  have   dropped   any  treasures  from  the 
ocean.     Those  who  have  enjoyed  this  pleasure  will  gladly 
recall  the  sparkling  pools,  carpeted  with  rich-colored  sea- 
weeds which  half   conceal   the   timid   animals  that  live 
there. 

2.  In  such  pools  the  rocks,  the  shells,  and  the  sea-weeds 
all  have  richer  tints  from  the  bright  water  that  covers 
them,  and  one  who  loves  beautiful  things  will  linger  be- 
side the  pools  as  if  gazing  into  enchanted  gardens. 

3.  Sea-anemone.  —  On   searching  these   rock  pools  we 
shall  probably  find  many  curious  animals.     None  would 
interest  us  more  than  the  "  sea-anemone,"  though  when 
we  find  it  hiding  in  some  dark  corner,  with  its  tentacles 
all   drawn  in,  and  looking  like  a  soft  lump,  it  may  not 
promise  much  beauty. 

4.  Why  so  Named. — The  sea-anemone  adheres  firmly  to 
the  rocks,  so  we  will  not  pull  it  off.     If  we  watch  long 
enough  we  shall  see  it  begin  to  rise  in  the  middle,  and 
from  the  summit  will  creep  out,  very  slowly  and  softly, 


30      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 


beautiful  tentacles  like  a  wreath  around  the  top.  It  is 
now  that  this  singular  animal  looks  like  a  flower,  and  de- 
serves the  name  that  it  possesses.  Perhaps  it  is  not  so 
much  like  an  anemone  as  it  is  like  a  chrysanthemum  or 
some  other  flower  with  a  great  many  petals.  You  will  be 
charmed  with  the  delicate  light-colored  tentacles  waving 
gently  in  the  water. 

5.  Description,  —  In  the  middle  of  the  tentacles  is  the 
mouth,  leading  into  a  hollow  sac,  which  is  the  stomach. 

The  remainder  of 
the  body  is  divided 
by  partitions  from 
top  to  bottom  into 
open  chambers.  In 
Fig.  19  you  will  see 
the  stomach  at  e, 
and  the  chambers 
at  k.  There  is  an 
opening  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  stomach 
through  which  the 
food  passes  after 
it  is  digested!. 
Sea-water  also  en- 
ters the  body 

c,  tentacles;  d,  month;  e,  stomach;  g',g',  openings   tiirnilo.il    f^p    stnTY1 
in  the  partitions;  k,  chambers.  tnrOUgn 

ach,  and  both  the 

water  and  the  nourishment  circulate  freely  through  the 
chambers.  Each  tentacle  is  a  hollow  tube  connected  at 
its  base  with  one  of  the  chambers,  and  readily  filled  with 
water.  Here  we  have  an  explanation  of  the  mysterious 
manner  in  which  the  sea-anemone  swells  itself  out  and 
then  shrinks  away  again.  The  body  and  tentacles  are 


Fig.  19. — STOMACH  AND  CHAMBERS  OF  SEA- 
ANEMONE. 


SEA- ANEMONES.  31 

enlarged  by  drawing  in  water  to  fill  them,  and  when 
they  suddenly  contract  the  water  is  forced  out  through 
the  mouth. 

6.  No  hard  Skeleton, — The  sea -anemone  has  no  hard 
skeleton  whatever;  all  parts  of  the  body  are  soft,  like  a 
stiff  jelly.     It  can  draw  in  its  tentacles  out  of  sight,  and 
it  will  do  so  upon  the  slightest  alarm,  rolling  itself  into 
an  ugly  lump  like  the  one  we  found.     Allow  it  to  remain 
quiet  for  a  while,  however,  and  it  will  blossom  out  as  gor- 
geously as  ever. 

7.  The  Manner  of  Feeding, — When   any  little   crab,  or 
worm,  or  small  fish  brushes  past  the  tentacles,  the  lasso- 
cells  are  darted  out  to  paralyze  it,  and  the  tentacles  then 
seize  the  prey  and  carry  it  to  the  mouth.     The  bones  or 
shells  which  remain  after  the  meal  are  thrown  out  from 
the  mouth.     The  tentacles  hold  the  prey  tightly,  so  that 
even  cunning  crabs  cannot  escape,  and  you  know  it  is  not 
the  easiest  thing  in  the  world  to  catch  a  crab  and  hold  it. 

8.  Sea-anemones  are  greedy  creatures.     It  takes  a  great 
deal  of  food  to  satisfy  their  appetites,  and  their  mouths 
can  be  extended  to  receive  quite  large  animals.    They  eat 
mussels  and  cockles  by  sucking  the  body  out  of  its  shell. 
Great  numbers  of  sea-anemones,  in  their  turn,  are  devour- 
ed by  other  animals,  their  soft  bodies  offering  little  resist- 
ance to  their  foes. 

9.  Variety  of  Color. — The  variety  of  color  in  these  ani- 
mals is  almost  endless.     Some  of  them  are  rich  orange 
and  chocolate   colors,  others   purple  dotted  with  green. 
One  beautiful  species  has  violet  tentacles  pointed  with 
white;  another,  red  tentacles  speckled  with  gray.    Another 
spreads  out  its  green  arms  edged  with  a  circle  of  dead 
white,  while  still  another  opens  a  milk-white  top  circled 
with  a  border  of  pink.     In  Fig.  20  is  a  cluster  of  beauti- 


32      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 

ful  anemones.     The  two  small  ones  at  the  right  show  how 
these  creatures  look  when  closed. 

10.  Animals  protected  by  "Mimicry." — Some  sea-anem- 
ones which  live  in  exposed  situations  are  of  a  dull,  dusky 
brown,  covered  with  rough  warts,  while  animals  of  the 


Fig.  20. — CLUSTER  OF  ANEMONES. 

same  species,  living  in  deep  water,  where  there  is  less 
need  of  concealment,  have  smooth  skins  adorned  with 
brilliant  tints  of  rose,  scarlet,  or  light  green.  This  beau- 
tiful provision  of  Nature  for  protecting  animals  by  mak- 
ing them  inconspicuous  is  called  "  mimicry."  In  follow- 


SEA-ANEMONES.  33 

ing  our  studies  in  Natural  History  we  shall  find  many  in- 
stances of  this  general  resemblance  in  the  color  or  shape 
of  animals  to  the  objects  by  which  they  are  surrounded, 
and  we  shall  notice  that  the  animals  are  in  this  way  con- 
cealed from  their  enemies. 

11.  Great  Numbers  of  Eggs. — The  number  of  eggs  pro- 
duced by  sea-anemones  seems  almost  incredible.     A  sin- 
gle animal  is  said  to  throw  out  three  hundred  eggs  in 
one  day.     The  eggs  are  little  jelly-like  lumps  which  are 
formed  on  the  inside  of  the  partitions,  and  are  thrown 
out  from  the  mouth.     After  swimming  about  by  means 
of  cilia,  they  settle  on  some  solid  body  and  begin  to  grow. 
Sometimes  the  young  ones  remain  within  the  body  of  the 
parent  until  their  tentacles  are  formed.     They  are  then 
ready  to  settle  down  soon  after  reaching  the  water. 

12.  Budding  and  Renewal  of  Lost  Parts. — Sea-anemones 
increase  by  budding  as  well  as  by  eggs.     At  the  lower 
edge  of  the  body  little  round  knobs  are  sometimes  formed, 
which  separate  from  the  parent  and  grow  into  perfect  ani- 
mals.    If  the  tentacles  or  other  parts  of  the  body  are  re- 
moved, new  tentacles  soon  grow  in  their  places.     If  an 
individual  is  torn  in  pieces,  each  fragment  has  the  power 
of  forming  for  itself  a  mouth  and  throwing  out  tentacles, 
and  becoming  a  new  sea-anemone,  perfect  in  all  its  parts. 

13.  Where  Anemones  are  Found. — Most  species  live  in 
holes  among  the  rocks,  attached  to  stones  or  shells,  over 
which  they  slide  in  a  clumsy  way.     They  are  especially 
fond  of  deep  dark  grottos,  and  when  they  have  taken  full 
possession  of  such  places,  they  may  be  found  clinging  to 
the  sides  and  roof  of  the  cave,  and  displaying  their  charms 
without  reserve.     Although  they  do  not  enjoy  the  glare 
of  the  bright  sun,  they  expand  best  in  mild,  clear  weather, 
and  remain  closed  when  the  sea  is  rough  and  stormy. 

4 


34      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN  THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


Fig.  21.— SEA- ANEMONES. 

14.  A  few  of  these  animals  float  on  the  ocean.  One 
sea-anemone  is  fond  of  a  roving  life,  and  having  no  very 
good  means  of  travelling  about,  it  attaches  itself  to  the 
back  of  a  certain  kind  of  crab,  and  accompanies  the  crab 


SEA-ANEMO 

in  all  its  wanderings.     There  ^Ti7'TW'ffflllittTii "I inn 

between  the  two,  and  one  is  rarely  seen  without  the  other. 

15.  Another  species  is  mostly  found  clinging  to  the  shell 
of  a  whelk,  but  for  certain  good  reasons  it  never  clings  to 
a  living  one.    The  whelk  burrows  in  the  sand.    This  would 
be  disagreeable  and  inconvenient  to  the  anemone,  so  it 
prefers  a  dead  shell  which  has  been  taken  possession  of 
by  a  hermit-crab,  and  henceforth  it  travels  about  with  the 
crab.    We  should  scarcely  look  for  affection  in  a  crab,  but 
it  has  been  said  that  the  hermit  grows  fond  of  its  com- 
panion, and  that  when  it  has  outgrown  its  shell  and  has 
selected  a  new  one,  it  will  carefully  lift  the  anemone  from 
the  old  home  and  place  it  on  the  new  one,  "  giving  it  sev- 
eral little  taps  with  its  big  claws  to  settle  it." 

16.  A  Simple  Aquarium. — Do  not  fail  to  hunt  up  these 
lovely  rock  pools  when  you  have  an  opportunity.     The 
pleasure  of  a  visit  to  the  sea-shore  is  greatly  increased  by 
an  interest  in  the  strange  forms  of  animal  life  which  we 
see  there  and  nowhere  else.     A  glass  jar  filled  with  sea- 
water  is  often  a  source  of  great  delight.     In  it  you  may 
drop  any  strange  -  looking  object  that  has  excited  your 
curiosity.      Perhaps   this  very  object  may  prove  to  be 
some  odd  little  animal  which  is  not  yet  dead,  but  which 
will  revive  with  the  touch  of  the  life-giving  water. 

17.  In  this  way  we  may  watch  their  habits  and  their 
hidden  beauties.     Sea-anemones  do  well  in  such  an  aqua- 
rium, and  as  they  cling  to  the  side  of  the  jar,  we  can  ob- 
serve all  their  parts  while  they  are  in  action.     By  far  the 
pleasantest  way  to  learn  about  them  is  to  let  them  tell 
their  own  story.     The  water  must  be  changed  frequently, 
for  impurities  are  constantly  passing  from  the  bodies  of 
even  these  delicate  animals.     They  will  soon  die  if  placed 
in  fresh  water. 


36      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA  AND   ON  THE   LAND. 


VI. 
CORALS. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  CCELENTERATA :   CLASS,  ACTLNOZOA. 

1.  Corals. — Most  persons  admire  corals.     They  are  so 
common  and  easily  obtained  that  I  hope  each  of  you  will 
lay  aside  your  reading  just  here,  and  hunt  up  a  piece,  no 
matter  how  small,  that  we  may  examine  it  carefully,  and 
see  what  we  can  find  out  about  it.     You  must  find,  how- 
ever, a  piece  of  the  natural  coral,  just  as  it  was  brought 
up  out  of  the  sea,  and  not  a  polished  piece  such  as  is 
made  into  ear-rings  and  brooches  and  strings  of  beads 
for  ornaments. 

2.  The  Roughness  on  the  Surface. — What  makes  this  bit 
of  natural  coral  so  rough  ?    The  first  glance  will  convince 
you  that  those  curious  pits  and  little  cups  on  the  surface 
mean   something ;  and  when   we  remember  that  all  the 
corals  which  reach  us  are  the  skeletons  of  former  living 
animals,  they  interest  us  at  once. 

3.  Home  of  the  Corals. — Few  of  us,  perhaps,  will  ever  be 
so  fortunate  as  to  see  living  corals,  since  they  grow  prin- 
cipally in  the  deep  water  of  warm  oceans.     The  higher 
the  temperature,  the  greater  the  variety  and  profusion  of 
corals.    They  are  delicate  creatures,  however,  as  they  will 
not  flourish  under  adverse  circumstances.     They  require 
water  of  a  certain  depth,  and  they  die  immediately  if 
exposed  to  the  sun  or  to  cold  weather.     During  life  the 
skeleton  is  covered  with  soft  flesh,  the  surface  of  which  is 
thickly  studded  with  star-like  animals  called  polyps.     In 


CORALS. 


37 


Fig.  22. — BRANCHING  CORAL  ALIVE,  WITH  POLYPS  EXPANDED. 

this  way  millions  of  polyps  are  sometimes  clustered  to- 
gether in  one  community.  As  they  .wave  their  delicate 
tentacles  of  white,  green,  or  rose  color,  they  are  very  beau- 
tiful, especially  if  seen  in  bright  sunlight  through  water 
that  is  clear  and  still. 

4.  A  Piece  of  Coral  Examined. — In  Fig.  22  is  shown  a 
piece  of  living  coral  with  the  polyps  expanded.  The  flesh 
has  been  removed  from  the  upper  branch  on  the  left  that 
we  may  see  the  skeleton.  Let  us  suppose  that  the  speci- 
mens we  have  selected  for  study  are  of  this  kind.  Each 
of  the  tiny  cups  on  the  surface  was  once  the  framework 


38      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN  THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

of  a  separate  polyp,  and  we  shall  find  that  its  interior  is 
divided  by  a  number  of  partitions  which  do  not  quite 
reach  the  centre.  Look  into  the  cups  with  your  micro- 
scopes,* and  you  will  find  them  very  beautiful.  One  set 
of  partition-walls  reaches  almost  to  the  centre,  and  be- 
tween these  walls  are  shorter  ones.  These  give  us  a  clew 
to  the  kind  of  animal  that  has  lived  here,  and  they  will  at 
once  remind  you  of  the  partitions  in  the  sea-anemone,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  19  of  the  last  chapter.  Indeed,  the  whole 
structure  of  a  coral  polyp  is  similar  to  that  of  an  anemone, 
and  we  can  now  easily  imagine  the  stomach  of  the  polyp 
hanging  down  in  the  opening  left  between  those  delicate 
partitions.  Coral  polyps  differ  from  sea-anemones,  how- 
ever, in  three  important  ways — they  have  hard  skeletons, 
they  cannot  move  about,  and  they  usually  grow  in  clusters. 

5.  Life  History  of  the  Polyps. — When  young,  coral  polyps 
are  little  jelly-like  animals  which  swim  about  in  the  wa- 
ter.     After  they  have  chosen  a  resting-place,  and  the 
stomach  and  tentacles  have  grown,  hard  particles  of  lime, 
which  they  have  drawn  in  from  the  sea-water,  settle  in 
their  flesh  to  form  a  circular  cup  as  well  as  the  partitions 
inside.    In  this  way  the  polyps  soon  acquire  a  solid  frame, 
the  soft  parts  being  the  stomach,  the  fringe  of  tentacles, 
and  the  fleshy  mass  covering  the  skeleton.    They  can  draw 
the  tentacles  entirely  within  the  body,  as  the  anemone 
does.     Like  the  anemone  they  also  have  lasso-cells  for 
capturing  their  food. 

6.  How  Corals  become  Branched. — Should  it  be  a  branch- 
ing coral  whose  history  we  are  tracing,  it  will  now  begin 


*  A  Coddington  lens,  which  is  inexpensive,  is  a  useful  thing  to  possess. 
It  can  be  carried  in  the  pocket ;  and  if  we  have  it  always  with  us,  we  may 
find  new  beauties  wherever  we  go. 


CORALS.  39 

to  bud  from  the  sides.  The  buds  will  grow  into  branches, 
throwing  out  other  buds,  somewhat  as  plants  do,  until  we 
have  an  elegantly  branching  colony.  Each  bud  is  a  new 
polyp,  and  remains  attached  to  the  branch  from  which 
it  sprang.  Although  the  polyps  in  such  a  community 
have  separate  mouths  and  stomachs,  there  is  a  close  con- 
nection  between  them,  and  a  free  circulation  of  fluids 
through  the  soft  flesh. 


Fig.  23. — ASTRJSA  PALLIDA  (XATTIIAL  SIZE). 

7.  One  Generation  after  Another. — As  in  other  families 
one  generation  passes  away  and  another  takes  its  place, 
so  in  large  branches  of  coral  the  lower  and  older  portions 
may  be  dead,  and  living  polyps  will  be  found  only  at  the 
ends  of  the  branches. 

8.  The  Eggs.  —  Besides   increasing  by  budding,  corals 
increase  rapidly  by  eggs.     Their  eggs  are  pear-shaped, 
transparent  bodies,  covered  with  cilia,  which  are  in  con- 
stant motion,  and  which  row  the  jelly-like  lumps  through 
the  water.     The  parents,  you  remember,  are  firmly  rooted 
to  some  object,  but  their  little  ones  are  gifted  for  a  time 


40      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 

with  the  power  of  motion.  They  may  well  enjoy  the 
privilege  while  it  lasts,  for  it  is  their  only  chance  of  ex- 
ploring their  ocean  home.  Presently  they  must  settle 
down  like  other  sedate  corals.  It  is  in  this  manner  that 
the  young  polyps  are  distributed  through  the  ocean 
instead  of  growing  in  a  crowded  colony  around  the 
parent. 

9.  Coral  not  Built  by  an  Insect — "Radiates."— You  will 
often  hear  coral  spoken  of  as  having  been  built  by  an  in- 
sect, and  you  will  see  at  once  that  this  is  far  from  correct. 
Coral  polyps  are  very  different  from  insects,  and  their 
skeletons  grow,  much  as  ours  do,  inside  of  the  animal ;  so 
we  cannot  say  they  have  been  built.    All  such  animals  as 
coral  polyps,  which  have  the  mouth  in  the  centre,  with 
other  parts  radiating  from  it,  are  called  "Radiates." 

10.  Different  Forms  of  Coral. — Besides  these  branching 


Fig.  24. — MUSHROOM  CORAL. 

corals  which  resemble  trees  and  shrubs,  there  are  other 
kinds  which  grow  in  solid  masses  without  sending  off 
branches.  Some  assume  the  shape  of  graceful  vases,  and 
all  of  these  varieties  are  gayly  decked  with  star-like  polyps 


CORALS. 


41 


of  varied  colors.     Does  it  not  seem  to  you  as  if  the  ocean 
was  one  vast  storehouse  of  beautiful  things  ? 

11.  The  Mushroom  Coral. —  The  mushroom  coral  (Fig. 
24)  looks  indeed  like  a  large  mushroom,  although  you  will 
notice  that  the  leaflets  are  on  the  upper  surface  instead  of 
being  underneath,  as  they  are  in  the  vegetable  mushroom. 
This   coral   is   the    skeleton   of 

one  huge  polyp,  and  we  see  the 
depression  in  the  centre  corre- 
sponding to  the  little  cups  on 
most  other  corals. 

12.  Organ -pipe  Coral. — The 
organ-pipe  coral  consists  of  love- 
ly crimson  tubes  standing  up- 
right, and   connected    at   short 
distances    by    thin    flat    plates, 
which  give  it  the  appearance  of 
being  several  stories  in  height. 
These  plates  may  be  distinctly 
seen  in  Fig.  25.     When  alive,  a 
bright  purple   polyp   protrudes 
from  the  top  of  each  tube. 

13.  Red  Coral. — Red  coral,  which  is  used  for  jewellery, 
grows  in  a  bushy  form  on  rocks  at  the  bottom  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  Red  seas.      The  fleshy  mass  of  this 
coral  is  colored  red  by  the  numerous  red  spicules  it  con- 
tains, while  the  polyps  themselves   are  pure  white,  the 
whole  resembling  a  pretty  red  shrub  spotted  over  with 
sparkling  white  flowers.     The  spicules  in  the  centre  of 
the  branches  form  a  solid  stem,  which  takes  a  fine  polish. 
Underneath  the  flesh  the  surface  of  the  coral  is  marked 
with  deep  grooves,  which  are  canals  for  the  circulation 
of  water.     These  grooves  are  shown  at  both  ends  of  the 


Fig.  25. — ORGAN-PIPE  CORAL. 


42      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN  THE   SEA   AND   ON  THE   LAND. 

branch  in  Fig.  26.     They  are  always  removed  in  polish- 
ing. 

14.  Red  coral  is  generally  obtained  by  fishermen,  who 
drop  into  the  water  heavy  wooden  crosses  to  which  strong 
nets  are  attached.  As  the  boat  moves  slowly  forward, 
the  crosses  are  raised  and  lowered  to  break  off  the  coral 
branches.  The  apparatus  is  then  lifted  from  the  water, 
and  the  fragments  of  coral  which  have  become  entangled 


Fig.  26.— FRAGMENT  OF  RED  CORAL  WITH  POLYPS. 

in  the  net  are  carefully  removed.  There  are  many  shops 
in  Italy  where  the  coral  is  polished  and  cut  into  various 
ornaments.  Delicate  rose -colored  corals  are  considered 
very  choice  and  elegant,  but  the  natives  of  India  prefer 
blood-red  ones,  which  contrast  finely  with  their  dark  rich 
complexions.  Corals  are  their  favorite  ornaments,  and 
large  quantities  are  imported  every  year. 


CORAL   REEFS.  43 


vn. 

CORAL  REEFS. 

1.  Circular  Islands. — The  attention  of  seamen  and  navi- 
gators has  long  been  attracted  by  the  number  of  circular 
islands  in  the  warm  parts  of  the  Pacific  and  Indian  oceans. 
Generally  each  one  of  these  circular  islands  contains  a 
lake  of  quiet  water  extending  almost  to  its  outer  shores, 
so  that  the  island  looks  like  a  fairy  ring  of  land  floating 
in  the  ocean,  and  adorned  with  tropical  trees  and  plants. 

2.  What  are  Coral  Reefs  ?— Happily  for  the  boys  and 
girls  of  the  present  day,  this  subject,  with  other  equally 
fascinating  branches  of  science,  has  now  been  studied  by 
naturalists,  who  give  us  the  rich  results  of  their  labors. 
It  seems  scarcely  possible  that  the  dainty,  beautiful  corals 
which  we  have  just  examined  can  have  anything  to  do 
with  the  making  of  islands,  but  nevertheless  we  find  this 
to  be  the  fact.    Coral  reefs  are  vast  masses  of  coral  which 
have  grown  in  tropical  oceans,  where  there  is  a  strong 
current  in  the  warm  water.     Their  formation  must  have 
been  slow,  yet  they  sometimes  extend  hundreds  of  miles. 
Many  parts  of  our  solid  continents  are  now  thought  to 
have  been  formed  from  coral  reefs. 

3.  The  Beginning  of  a  Reef. — Let  us  now  try  to  picture 
to  ourselves  the  beginning  of  one  of  these  reefs,  and  by 
following  its  growth  step  by  step  we  may  at  last  under- 
stand how  it  has  been  formed.     There  are  hills  and  val- 


44:      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN  THE   SEA   AND   ON  THE   LAND. 

leys  on  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  as  well  as  on  the  land. 
We  will  fancy  that  some  young  coral  polyps  which  have 
been  swimming  about  in  the  sea  settle  on  the  sides  of  one 
of  these  hills,  and  begin  to  grow  and  spread  all  around  the 
hill.  They  will  increase  also  by  the  deposit  of  eggs  until 
they  form  a  circular  wall. 

4.  As  the  coral  wall  grows,  the  lower  polyps  and  the 
inner  ones  die,  their  skeletons  forming  a  solid  foundation 
for  all  that  grow  above  them.  There  may  be  only  about 
an  inch  of  living  coral  on  the  outside  of  the  reef. 


Fig.  27. 


a,  a,  Surface  of  the  Water;  &,  Natural  Bed  of  the  Ocean ;  c,  c,  Coral  Formation  ; 
d,  Lagoon. 

5.  How  the  Lagoon  is  Formed. — These  walls  rise  nearly 
straight,  and  you  will  see  that  in  doing  so  they  enclose  a 
circular  basin   of  quiet  water,  and  now  you  can  under- 
stand why  it  is  that  a  coral  island  mostly  has  a  lake  in 
the  centre,  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  27.     The  lakes  are  called 
lagoons. 

6.  Different  Varieties  of  Coral  found  at  Different  Depths. 
— The  bottom  of  the  wall  is  formed  of  brain-coral  and 
other  solid  kinds  which  live  only  in  deep  water,  and  these 
die  when  a  certain  height  is  reached.     The  formation  of 


CORAL   REEFS.  45 

the  new  island  does  not  stop  with  their  death,  however. 
The  wall  having  now  reached  the  proper  height  to  suit 
branching  corals,  which  require  shallower  water,  their 
young  polyps  will  settle  upon  it,  and  finish  the  structure. 
We  might  suppose  a  reef  formed  of  branching  corals 
would  be  open  and  unsubstantial,  but  in  their  growth  the 
branches  are  thickly  interlaced.  The  spaces  between  them 
become  filled  with  substances  floating  in  the  ocean,  and 
with  pieces  of  coral  which  are  broken  from  the  reef  by 
the  fierce  dashing  of  the  waves.  These  fragments  of 
coral  suffer  no  serious  injury  by  breaking,  but  if  lodged 
in  some  favorable  spot  they  continue  to  grow,  and  to- 
gether they  form  a  solid  mass,  stronger,  perhaps,  than  any 
stone  masonry. 

7.  The  Sea  not  too  Rough  for  the  Polyps.— The  outer 
edge  of  the  wall  is  steep  and  abrupt.     Soundings  taken 
just  outside  show  very  deep  water.     In  this  portion  of 
the  wall  the  corals  live  and  thrive,  always  supplied  with 
clear  water,  and  an  abundance  of  food  brought  by  the 
rapid  current.      The  breakers  dash  against  it  with  such 
fury  that  apparently  the  hardest  rock  must  in  time  yield 
to  the  tremendous  force  of  the  waves.     But,  strange  as 
it  may  appear,  the  soft  jelly-like  bodies  of  the  polyps  give 
to  the  reef  the  power  of  resisting  the  billows. 

8.  The  Inner  Surface  of  the  Wall. — The  inner  surface  of 
the  wall  slopes  gently  to  the  land,  and  being  washed  by 
quiet  waters   often  containing  sand  and  mud,  it  is  not 
favorable  to  the  growth  of  polyps.    Still,  there  are  certain 
kinds  of  coral  which  thrive  within  the  lagoons,  and  some 
of  these  are  exceedingly  brilliant  and  beautiful. 

9.  How  the  Island  is  Raised  above  the  Sea. — The  coral 
polyps  die  before  they  reach  the  surface  of  the  ocean,  as 
no  corals  can  live  out  of  water.     The  remainder  of  the 


46      ANIMAL   LIFE    IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

island  is  built  up  by  shells,  pieces  of  broken  coral,  sea- 
weed, and  other  floating  materials  which  are  washed  upon 
it,  and  raise  the  wall  higher  and  higher.  The  never- 
ceasing  action  of  the  waves  grinds  up  these  shells  and 
broken  coral,  until  at  last  they  form  a  soil  of  sand  and 
mud  which  is  now  ready  to  receive  any  seeds  that  may 
float  on  the  water  or  be  brought  by  the  winds  and  the 
birds.  The  seeds  take  root  in  the  new  soil,  and  young 
plants  begin  to  appear  on  the  glistening  white  surface. 

10.  The  Vegetation. — Cocoa-nut-trees  are  often  the  first 
to  appear  among  these  plants,  the  large  nuts  floating  upon 
the  ocean  having  lodged  on  the  shores   and  found  the 
warmth  and  moisture  well  suited  to  their  growth.     Other 
kinds  of  palms  and  pineapples  also  grow  on  these  reefs. 

11.  The  Soil. — The  soil  is  thin,  seldom  being  more  than 
six  or  eight  inches  deep,  but  as  the  top  of  the  reef  is 
somewhat  open  and  honey-combed,  the  crevices  become 
filled  with  the  soil  we  have  described,  and  they  make  good 
holding  places  for  the  roots  of  large  trees.    As  the  plants 
drop  their  leaves  and  decay,  the  soil  is  enriched  little  by 
little,  and  the  island  is  fitted  for  the  home  of  various  ani- 
mals and  birds,  which  in  some  mysterious  manner  find 
their  way  to  these  lonely  spots  far  out  at  sea.     In  time 
our  coral  reef  may  become   a  beautiful  tropical  island 
fringed  with  waving  trees  and  plants,  and  inhabited  by 
man. 

12.  Atolls. — These  circular  reefs  are  called  "atolls,"  and 
they  seldom  form  complete  rings.     There  is  generally  an 
opening  into  the  lake  on  the  side  most  sheltered  from  the 
wind.     A  safe  harbor  in  mid-ocean  is  thus  made,  in  which 
vessels  may  take  shelter,  but  it  requires  an  expert  navi- 
gator to  pass  the  perils  at  its  entrance.     In  Fig.  28  is  a 
pretty  little  coral  island  with  ships  in  its  lagoon.     If  a 


CORAL   REEFS. 


47 


lake  is  entirely  enclosed  by  the  coral  wall,  it  may  in 
time  be  changed  to  fresh  water  by  the  rains  that  fall 
into  it. 

13.  Theory  of  Coral  Reefs. — Coral  reefs  often  extend  to 
a  depth  of  many  hundred  feet  below  the  surface  of  the 
ocean,  and  formerly  persons  were  puzzled  to  know  how 
they  could  have  been  formed  in  such  deep  water,  as  reef- 
building  corals  do  not  thrive  at  a  greater  depth  than  one 
hundred  and  twenty  or  one  hundred  and  eighty  feet. 


Fiir.  '28.— AN  ATOLL. 


This  puzzling  question  was  settled  by  the  late  Charles 
Darwin,  who  first  showed  that  coral  islands  occur  where 
there  has  been  a  gradual  sinking  of  the  bottom  of  the 
ocean.  The  theory  is  now  generally  adopted  that  as 
the  growing  reef  rose  in  height,  the  foundation  sank 
slowly,  and  in  this  way  the  upward  growth  was  partly 
counteracted;  consequently,  the  proper  depth  of  water 
was  secured,  and  the  reef  appeared  to  be  stationary, 
whereas  it  was  really  growing  upward. 

14.  When  a  coral  reef  rises  above  the  surface  of  the 


48      ANIMAL    LIFE    IN    THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

ocean,  we  may  know  that  the  coral,  which  grew  under 
water,  has  been  lifted  above  the  level  of  the  sea  by  a  rising 
of  the  ocean  bed  since  the  reef  was  formed. 

15.  Fringing  Reefs. — "Fringing  reefs"  are  those  which 
extend  along  the  shores  of  continents  and  islands.  There 
are  usually  openings  or  breaks  in  fringing  reefs  directly 
opposite  the  mouths  of  rivers  and  fresh-water  streams,  as 
the  corals  cannot  endure  currents  carrying  mud  or  sed- 
iment. Perhaps  the  grandest  reef  to  be  found  in  any  part 
of  the  world  is  the  one  extending  along  the  north-east 
coast  of  Australia.  It  is  nearly  one  thousand  miles  in 
length,  and  proves  to  us  that  the  helpless  coral  polyps 
have  played  no  trifling  part  in  the  formation  of  our  earth. 
All  they  have  accomplished  has  been  done  merely  by  their 
living  and  growing. 


CTEtfOPHOKA.  49 


vin. 

CTENOPHORA. 
DAINTY  MORSELS    FOR    THE   WHALES. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  CCELENTERATA  :   CLASS,  ACTINOZOA. 

1.  Ctenophora. — Did  you  ever  think  how  hard  it  would 
be  to  describe  a  soap-bubble  to  a  person  who  had  never 
seen  one?     It  would  even  be  difficult  to  paint  a  picture 
that  would  convey  an  idea  of  its  delicate  beauty.     It  will 
be  quite  as  difficult  to  describe  to  you  a  class  of  animals 
almost  as  fairy-like  as  soap-bubbles,  although  they  swim 
about  .in  the  ocean,  and  are  honored  with  the  high-sound- 
ing name  of  ctenophora.          ,jj 

2.  How  shall  we  Pronounce  the  Word?  —  At  the  first 
glanqe  ctenophora  may  look  like  a  hard  word,  but  drop 
the  "  c,"  and  you  will  find  it  quite  easily  pronounced — 
"te-noph'-o-ra."    Were  it  possible  for  you  once  to  see 
these  charming  creatures  darting  about  in  their  native 
sea-water,  their  name  henceforth  would  have  a  pleasant 
sound,  and  even  a  pleasant  look,  recalling  to  your  minds 
lovely  images  of  floating  balloons  and  fairy  bubbles. 

3.  How  shall  we  see  Them? — Ctenophora  are  too  small 
and  inconspicuous  to  be  seen  at  the  distance  we  usually  are 
from  the  surface  of  the  ocean,  so  the  best  way  to  observe 
them  is  in  a  large  glass  jar.    On  a  calm  day  a  jar  of  water 
dipped  from  the  surface  of  the  ocean  may  contain  some 
of  these  beautiful  creatures,  although  perhaps  several  jar- 
f'jls  will  have  to  be  raised  before  the  search  is  successful. 


50      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA  AND   ON  THE   LAND. 

4.  Transparency  of  the  Ctenophora. — Upon  looking  close- 
ly at  the  little  captives  you  will  find  them  to  be  jelly-like, 
melon-shaped  bodies,  with  bands  running  from  end  to  end 
like  the  ribs  on  a  melon.  They  are  almost  transparent, 
and  if  it  were  not  for  the  prismatic  colors  that  play  upon 


Fig.  29. — CTENOPHORA. 

their  sides  as  they  glide  through  the  water  we  could 
scarcely  see  them.  If  the  ctenophora  sporting  about  in 
the  jar  should  swim  in  between  you  and  any  object  be- 
yond the  jar,  you  can  see  the  object  distinctly  through 
their  transparent  bodies.  Fig.  29  shows  the  form  of  one 
of  the  ctenophora,  but  it  gives  no  idea  of  its  delicacy. 


CTENOPHORA.  51 

5.  The  Soft  Bodies. — The  soft  bodies  of  the  ctenophora 
and  their  manner  of  life  may  remind  you  of  jelly-fishes. 
Still,  their  structure  is  far  more  complicated,  as  we  may 
observe  through  the  clear  substance  of  which  the  body 
is  composed.     When  taken  from  the  sea-water  they  lose 
their  shape,  and  nothing  is  left  but  a  film  which  is  almost 
invisible. 

6.  Jelly-like  Animals  could  Live  only  in  Water.  —  The 
thought  has  perhaps  already  occurred  to  you  that  such 
animals  as  these,  with  jelly  -  like  bodies,  could  live   no- 
where but  in  the  water.     Many  of  them  have  no  means 
of  pursuing  or  of  catching  their  prey,  and  they  obtain 
only  such  food  as  is  floated  to  them  by  currents  in  the 
water. 

7.  Pood. — Although  the  ctenophora  look  so  fairy-like, 
they  devour  a  large  number  of  animals,  and  they  seem  to 
prefer  their  own  kindred.      The  mouth  is  at  the  upper 
end  of  the  body,  and  when  it  is  open,  the  food  floats  in 
and  is  quickly  digested.     In  addition  to  the  cavities  nec- 
essary for  digesting  food,  there  is  a  set  of  canals  within 
the  body  for  the  circulation  of  water. 

8.  How  Ctenophora  Swim. — The  ctenophora  swim  about 
with  exquisite  grace,  and  yet  they  have  no  arms,  no  legs, 
no  fins,  to  swim  with.     What  need  have  they  of  any  such 
organs  ?     Their  cilia  are  quite  sufficient  (the  word  cilia, 
you  remember,  means  eyelashes).     Those  eight  stripes  we 
see  running  from  one  end  to  the  other  in  Fig.  29  are 
bands  of  muscles  on  which  are  arranged  comb-like  fringes 
of  cilia,  which  wave  rapidly  in  the  water,  and  give  to  the 
animal  its  lively  motions.    Indeed,  it  seems  as  if  the  fairy- 
like  creature  could  not  keep  still.     How  can  it  keep  still 
when  these  impatient  cilia  are  striking  the  water  ?     They 
send  the  little  thing  round  and  round,  darting  up  and 


52       ANIMAL    LIFE    IN   THK    SEA    AND    ON   THE    LAND. 

down,  till  we  wonder  which  way  it  will  go  next.  The 
cilia  are  worked  by  muscles  under  the  control  of  the  ani- 
mal, and  are  to  the  ctenophora  what  oars  are  to  a  row- 
boat. 

9.  Study  of  Cilia. — These  eight  bands  of  cilia  add  greatly 
to  the  beauty  of  the  dainty  creatures.  Their  rapid  motion 
separates  the  rays  of  light  that  fall  upon  them, -and  pro- 
duces down  each  band  a  flash  of  rainbow  colors.  In  fact, 
the  cilia  are  so  important  and  characteristic  a  feature  of 


Fig.  30. — CILIA  ON  THK  GILLS  OF  A  MUSSKL. 

the  ctenophora  that  we  should  do  well  to  become  per- 
fectly familiar  with  them.  The  appearance  of  these  hair- 
like  organs  is  much  the  same  wherever  they  are  found, 
and  they  show  very  distinctly  on  the  gills  of  the  mussel 
(Fig.  30).  These  gills  are  fringed  with  countless  cilia, 
which  under  a  microscope  may  be  seen  in  rapid  motion, 
producing  a  continual  current  of  water  in  one  direction. 
Their  motion  is  regular,  like  that  of  the  heart.  The  little 
plates  forming  the  gill  lie  side  by  side  naturally,  and 
unless  we  looked  very  closely  we  might  think  the  gills 
consisted  of  only  one  piece.  The  plates  are  pulled  apart 
in  the  drawing  to  show  the  cilia  more  distinctly. 


CTENOPHORA.  53 

10.  It  is  interesting  to  notice  the  various  uses  of  cilia  in 
the  different  positions  in  which  they  occur.  Sometimes,  as 
in  the  ctenophora,  they  propel  the  animal  by  striking  the 
water  like  a  multitude  of  tiny  oars.  Sometimes  they  sur- 
round the  mouth,  "  and  by  their  incessant  action  produce 
a  small  whirlpool,  into  which  the  food  is  sucked."  In 
other  cases  their  office  seems  to  be  to  supply  the  needful 
air  by  keeping  up  a  continual  current  of  water,  which 
contains  as  much  air  as  these  animals  need.  On  the  other 
hand,  we  must  not  imagine  that  cilia  are  confined  to  the 
lower  animals  living  in  the  water.  They  serve  important 
uses  even  in  our  own  bodies.  For  instance,  the  air-pas- 
sages leading  to  our  lungs  are  lined  with  cilia,  which  are 
constantly  lashing  the  air  and  beating  back  particles  of 
dust  and  other  impurities  which  it  contains.  Were  it  not 
for  the  cilia,  these  impurities  would  reach  our  lungs,  and 
produce  irritation  there. 

11.  Food  for  Whales.  —  The  beautiful  ctenophora,  idly 
sporting  in  the  water,  and  seeming  to  have  no  aim  but 
enjoyment,  are  far  from  useless,  since  they  form  the  chief 
food  of  the  Greenland  whale.     Do  you  not  think  these 
are  dainty  morsels  for  whales  to  feed  upon  ?    There  must, 
however,  be  a  good  deal  of  nourishment  in  their  trans- 
parent bodies,  for  the  whales  grow  enormously  large  and 
fat.     No  doubt  it  takes  a  great  many  ctenophora  to  make 
a  meal  for  the  monsters.     Large  shoals  of  them  are  met 
with  in  arctic  seas,  and  as  the  whales  swim  through  the 
water  with  their  great  mouths  hanging  open,  they  catch 
the  ctenophora  on  their  whalebone  fringes,  and  swallow 
a  mouthful  at  a  time. 

12.  Their  Abundance  in  the  Ocean. — In  certain  parts  of 
the  Arctic  Ocean  the  water  is  of  a  grass-green  hue,  and 
is  quite  opaque.     It  is  commonly  spoken  of  as  the  ft  green 


54     ANIMAL   LIFE  IK  THE  SEA  AND  ON  THE  LAND. 

water,"  and  its  peculiar  appearance  is  caused  by  the  im- 
mense number  of  ctenophora  it  contains.  These  frolic- 
some little  beings,  living  so  thick  and  close  as  to  color  the 
water,  are  too  small  to  be  seen  without  a  microscope.  The 


Fig.  31. — CTENOPHORA  AND  PHOSPHORESCENT  FISHES. 

rose-colored  idyia,  another  species  of  ctenophora,  is  three 
or  four  inches  long.  It  sometimes  occurs  in  such  numbers 
as  to  tinge  large  patches  of  the  sea  with  its  rosy  color. 

13.  Phosphorescence. — All  the  ctenophora  are  phospho- 
rescent.   They  are  abundant  on  our  own  coasts,  and  are 


CTEXOPHORA. 


55 


often  left  on  the  shore  at  low  tide,  yet  their  beauty  can 
only  be  seen  as  they  glide  daintily  through  the  water. 
The  eggs  of  some  species  escape  singly,  others  are  laid  in 
strings  or  masses  of  jelly,  and  the  young  ones  hatch  out 
in  the  same  form  as  their  parents. 

14.  Beauty  of  the  Ctenophora. — A  jarful  of  sea- water 
dipped  from  the  end  of  a  pier  one  bright  summer  day 
contained  four  ctenophora,  and  made  a  whole  party  glad 
for  an  hour.     It  was  a  great  delight  to  watch  these  little 
creatures  darting  hither  and  thither,  sinking  and  rising 
again,  or  resting  on  their  oars,  according  to  their  own 
sweet  will.     Sometimes  we  could 

not   see    them   at   all,  though   we 

knew  they  were  in  the  clear  water 

before  us;  then  a  flash  of  bright 

color  appeared,  and  we   followed  y  \\ 

their  devious  course  by  their  glit-  j(  \\ 

ter  and  sparkle. 

15.  Pleurobrachia, — One  of  these 
captive    ctenophora    was    smaller 
than  the  others,  and  more  nearly 
spherical.     It  belonged  to  the  spe- 
cies Pleurobrachia,  which  you  will 

see  represented  in   Fig.  32.     This     Fig.  32.-PLEUROBRACHiA. 
was  our  especial  favorite.    At  times 

it  would  throw  out  two  long,  slender  tentacles,  which  were 
ornamented  on  one  side  with  delicate  tendrils.  Upon 
some  sudden  fancy  of  the  animal  these  tentacles  were 
instantly  drawn  in  out  of  sight,  while  at  the  next  moment 
they  were  floating  behind  it  for  nearly  half  a  yard.  One 
might  have  supposed  the  exquisite  creature  was  amusing 
itself  by  trying  in  how  many  different  ways  its  tentacles 
could  be  curved  and  twisted. 


56      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE  SEA  AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


IX. 
STAR-FISHES. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  ECHINODERMATA  :    CLASS,  ASTEROIDEA. 

1.  Favorite  Haunts  of  the  Star -fishes. — Those  of  you 
who  go  to  the  sea-shore  in  summer  have  perhaps  discov- 
ered that  star-fishes  like  rocky  coasts  the  best.    They  are 
found  most  abundantly  where  the  crevices  between  the 
stones  afford  good  hiding-places  for  themselves  and  for 
the  animals  upon  which  they  feed.     They  do  not  thrive 
upon  muddy  or  sandy  bottoms,  and  boys  and  girls  hunt- 
ing for  curiosities  upon  such  beaches   are  often  disap- 
pointed to  find  no  star-fishes. 

2.  They  spend  most  of  their  time  creeping  over  the 
rocks,  though  they  love  to  be  where  the  tide  will  ripple 
over  their  bodies  and  keep  them  well  supplied  with  sea- 
water,  which  they  depend  upon  for  their  oxygen.     Those 
poor,  half-dead  star-fishes  which  we  sometimes  see  in  a 
pitiful  condition  on  the  beach  will  often  revive  if  placed 
in  sea-water,  or,  if  left  on  the  beach,  the  next  high  wave 
mayrestore  them  by  carrying  them  out  to  sea  again. 

3.  How  shall  we  Preserve  them? — Our  dried  specimens 
are  yellow,  but  when  alive,  star-fishes   are  of  a  dull-red 
color,  sometimes  tinged  with  purple.     They  seem  plump 
and  fat  on  being  taken  from  the  ocean,  but  they  are  only 
puffed  up  with  water,  and  if  you  watch  them  closely  you 
will  see  the  water  oozing  out  all  over  the  back.    No  doubt 


STAR-FISHES. 


57 


you  have  learned  how  tedious  and  discouraging  it  is  to 
attempt  to  dry  star  -  fishes.  You  have  perhaps  been 
obliged  to  go  home,  as  many  before  you  have  done,  and 
leave  them  still  drying  in  the  sun.  It  may  help  you  to 
know  that  a  very  good  way  is  to  dip  them  once  or  twice 
in  boiling  water  before  putting  them  in  the  sun  or  in  a 
warm  oven  to  dry. 


Fig.  33. — UNDER  SIDE  OF  RAY,  SHOWING  THE  HOLLOW  TUBES  AND  THE 
LIMESTONE  PLATES  OP  THE  SKELETON. 

4.  Broken  Arms  replaced.  —  Our  common  star -fish  has 
five  hollow  rays  or  arms,  extending  from  the  centre  like 
a  star.     If  any  of  these  rays  are  broken  off,  others  grow 
in  their  places.     It  is  a  singular  fact  that  these  animals 
can  break  themselves  to  pieces,  or  throw  off  their  rays, 
when  they  become  alarmed. 

5.  The  Skeleton. — Star-fishes  glide  along  smoothly,  and 
without  apparent  effort.      They  bend  their  bodies  into 
various  shapes  to  fit  the  inequalities  of  the  surface  over 
which  they  creep,  and  in  order  to  do  this  they  require  a 
movable  skeleton.     See  how  beautifully  Nature  has  pro- 
vided for  this  necessity  by  forming  the  skeleton  of  thin 
limestone  plates,  so  joined  as  to  admit  of  slight  motion. 
These  plates  are  represented  in  Fig.  33,  which  is  the  under 
side  of  a  ray,  and  the  end  having  been  broken  off,  we  can 
see  the  two  hollow  tubes  which  the  ray  contains. 


58      ANIMAL   LIFE    IN   THE   SEA    AND   ON   THE    LAND. 

6.  The  Upper  Surface— The  Madreporic  Body.— Look  now 
at  the  upper  side  of  your  star-fish,  and  notice  the  knobs 
and  short  spines  with  which  it  is  covered.  If  the  ani- 


Fig.  34. — STAR-FISHES  (LOWER  ONE  SHOWING  UNDER  SIDE  AND  TUBE-FEET;. 

mal  is  alive  we  may  see  between  these  spines  tiny  forks, 
with  two  prongs  that  are  constantly  snapping.  The 
use  of  the  forks  is  not  perfectly  understood ;  they  some- 


STAti-FISHES. 


59 


times  catch  small  prey,  and  they  may  also  be  useful  in 
removing  particles  of  matter  that  would  otherwise  choke 
up  the  pores  on  the  surface.  The  first  thing  your  bright 
eyes  will  discover  is  probably  the  round  spot  near  the 
middle  of  the  back  and  between  two  of  the  rays.  That 
is  called  the  "  madreporic  body,"  and  it  is  an  interesting 
object.  Examine  it  with  your  microscopes,  and  try  to 
think  what  those  tiny  holes  can  be  intended  for.  It  must 


Fig.  35. — DINING  UPON  AN  OYSTER. 

be  a  sieve.  Yes,  it  is  a  sieve,  admitting  water  into  tubes 
which  run  to  the  end  of  each  ray.  During  life  the  madre- 
poric body  is  bright-colored,  and  it  strains  all  the  water 
that  enters  the  tubes,  so  there  is  no  danger  of  their  be- 
coming choked. 

7.  Singular  Manner  of  Feeding.  —  Now  if  we  turn  our 
star-fish  over  we  shall  find  its  mouth  on  the  under  side. 
This  is  an  important  organ,  too,  for  star-fishes  busy  them- 
selves continually  with  eating.  They  are  especially  fond 


60      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA    AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

of  live  oysters  and  clams,  and  they  have  the  oddest  way 
of  eating  them.  They  turn  their  stomachs  right  out  into 
the  oyster  shell,  surrounding  the  soft  body  of  the  oyster, 
and  sucking  it  up.  When  the  star-fish  feeds  it  not  only 
bends  its  rays  into  a  cup  shape  to  hold  on  to  its  prey, 
like  the  one  in  the  picture  dining  upon  an  oyster,  but 
multitudes  of  tiny  suckers  spring  up  to  help,  and  the  prey 
finds  escape  impossible.  Oysters  generally  close  their 
shells  so  quickly  in  time  of  danger  that  we  cannot  under- 
stand why  they  should  allow  the  sluggish  star-fishes  to 
catch  them  napping.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  star- 
fish drops  into  the  shell  some  liquid  which  paralyzes  the 
oyster,  but  -this  no  one  knows.  So  you  see  the  star-fish, 
without  any  tools,  is  able  to  help  itself  to  raw  oysters. 

8.  Tube-feet. — The  way  in  which  star-fishes  walk  is  also 
curious.  It  will  repay  you  well  to  examine  the  next  living 
star-fish  you  find,  and  notice  the  odd  manner  in  which  it 
glides  along.  On  the  under  surface  of  each  ray  is  a 
double  row  of  hollow  tubes,  which  squirm  and  grope 
around  like  a  multitude  of  worms.  As  these  are  the  or- 
gans by  which  star-fishes  move,  they  are  called  tube-feet. 
They  are  lengthened  and  enlarged,  much  as  the  tentacles 
of  sea-anemones  are,  by  filling  them  with  water.  For  this 
purpose  each  tube -foot  is .  connected  writh  a  little  round 
bag  filled  with  water  from  the  water-tube  running  down 
the  ray.  When  the  bag  contracts  it  forces  water  into  the 
foot,  which  reaches  forward  and  attaches  itself  by  a  round 
sucker  on  the  end  to  the  surface  over  which  the  animal 
wishes  to  move.  In  this  way  one  sucker  after  another  is 
stretched  out  to  cling  to  the  surface,  and  as  the  suckers 
are  shortened  again  by  expelling  the  water,  the  body  is 
dragged  forward.  Fig.  36  shows  the  interior  of  one  of 
the  rays.  The  tube-feet,  g,  are  shrunken  up  quite  short, 


STAR-FISHES. 


61 


which  makes  the  water-bags,  A,  all  the  larger.     Notice  the 
mouth,  a,  the  stomach,  b,  and  the  intestine,  c. 


Fig.  36. — INTERIOR  OF  RAY. 

a,  mouth;  &,  stomach;  c,  intestine;  d,  upper  surface;  et  limestone  plates; 
/,  ovary ;  g,  tube-feet ;  A,  water-bags. 

9.  The  double  rows  of  tube-feet  are  set  in  a  deep  groove. 
In  your  dried  specimens  the  tube-feet  have  shrivelled  up 
and  fallen  away,  and  in  the  grooves  you  will  probably  see 
a  number  of  delicate  plates  arranged  side  by  side  in  two 
rows.      These  are  called  "ambulacral  plates,"  and  they 
are  sufficiently  far  apart  to  allow  water  to  flow  out  be- 
tween them  from  the  water-bags  into  the  tube-feet.     No- 
tice this  in  Fig.  33.     On  the  outer  edge  of  the  rays  is  a 
number  of  stiff  spines. 

10.  Other  Organs. — Star -fishes  have  a  liver  and  intes- 
tines.    Their  organs  do  not  lie  wholly  in  the  central  por- 
tion, but  extend  into  the  five  hollow  arms.    They  also  have 
nerves,  which  surround  the  mouth  and  pass  down  each 
arm,  where  they  end  in  a  red  eye-speck.    This  arrangement 
gives  to  star- fishes  five  eyes.     They  are  not  perfect  eyes, 
however,  and  it  is  probable  that  they  can  see  but  little. 
Star-fishes  are  said  to  be  careful  of  their  eggs,  carrying 
them  with  the  suckers  near  the  mouth. 

11.  Destruction  of  Oysters. — The  star-fish's  fondness  for 
fresh  oysters  is  a  serious  matter  to  the  oyster-grower,  and 


62      ANIMAL    LIFE    IN   THE   SEA    AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

Causes  him  to  lose  large  quantities  of  his  valuable  prop- 
erty. It  is  estimated  that  the  damage  every  year  to  the 
oyster-beds  between  Staten  Island  and  Cape  Cod  amounts 
to  $100,000.  Large  numbers  of  star-fishes  sometimes  ap- 
pear suddenly  and  unexpectedly  upon  the  shores.  They 
seem  to  be  washed  in  from  the  deep  sea,  and,  settling 
upon  the  oysters,  they  begin  their  work  of  destruction, 
and  consume  many  bushels  in  a  short  time.  These  attacks 
occur  chiefly  in  the  latter  part  of  summer  or  early  in  the 
fall,  and  are  much  dreaded  by  the  owners  of  oyster-beds. 

12.  Some  Uses  of  the  Star -fish.  —  The  oysterman  has 
learned  the  value  of  these  destructive  pests  for  manure, 
and  those  dredged  from  oyster-beds  are  now  saved  for 
fertilizing  purposes.     We  might  also  attribute  to  the  star- 
fishes a   certain   usefulness   as   scavengers   of  the   ocean, 
since  they  eat  all  sorts  of  animal  substances,  dead  as  well 
as  living,  and  do  their  full  share  towards  keeping  the 
waters  pure. 

13.  Some  kinds  of  star-fishes  have  long  feathery  arms, 
and  are   much   more   beautiful   than    our   common   ones 
which  we  have  been  studying. 


SEA-URCHINS. 


63 


SEA-URCHINS. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  ECHTNODERMATA  :    CLASS,  ECHINOIDEA. 

1.  Sea-urchins. — What  funny,  prickly  creatures  the  sea- 
urchins  are  !  A  person  might  easily  mistake  them  for 
green  chestnut-burs  scattered  on  the  beach,  and,  glancing 
up  hastily,  he  might  almost  expect  to  find  the  overhanging 


Fig.  37. — UNDER  SURFACE  OF  A  SEA  -  URCHIN,  SHOWING  Rows  OP  SUCKERS 
AMONG  THE  SPINES. 

branches  of  a  great  chestnut-tree.  By  this  time,  however, 
the  prickly  green  things  may  have  stretched  out  their  pur- 
ple suckers  and  begun  to  drag  themselves  over  the  beach. 
This  motion  prompts  us  to  place  them  among  the  animals. 


64      ANIMAL    LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AtfD   ON   THE    LAND. 

2.  How  are  they  like  Star-fishes?  —  We  have  seen -the 
same  method  of  travelling  practised  by  our  old  friends 
the  star -fishes,  yet  surely  these  round  creatures  can  be 
nothing  like  star -fishes.  But  that  is  just  what  they  are 
like,  and  I  think  we  shall  soon  discover  a  close  relation- 
ship between  the  two.  We  might  almost  say  that  the  sea- 
urchin  (Fig.  37)  is  a  star-fish  that  has  got  up  in  the  world, 
and,  folding  its  rays  together  side  by  side,  has  concluded 
to  live  henceforth  shut  up  in  its  beautiful  round  box. 


Fig.  38. — SHELL  OF  A  SKA- URCHIN  WITHOUT  SPINES. 

3.  The  Shells.  —  We  sometimes  find  the  empty  white 
shells  of  sea-urchins  which  have  lost  their  coating  of 
prickles,  or  spines,  as  they  are  properly  called.  The  shells 
are  very  elegant,  being  scarcely  thicker  than  an  egg-shell, 
and  ornamented  with  rows  of  dots  and  knobs  with  open 
lace-work  between.  This  shell  is  not  one  globular  piece, 
as  you  might  suppose,  but  it  is  made  up  of  several  hun- 
dred little  plates  exquisitely  fitted  together,  and  forming 
a  true  mosaic,  as  seen  in  Fig.  38.  On  the  inside  of  the 
shell  you  can  easily  see  the  lines  where  these  plates  are 


SEA-URCHINS. 


65 


joined,  and  you  will  surely  be  charmed  with  the  double 
rows  of  lace-work  which  divide  the  shell  into  five  equal 
sections.  Let  us  see  what  they  mean. 

4.  Plan  of  the  Sea-urchin. — If  we  should  place  a  star- 
fish on  the  table  with  its  mouth  down,  and  bend  its  rays 
backward  until  they  meet  together  on  top,  and  the  edges 
of  the  rays  touch  each  other,  we  should  have  the  gen- 
eral plan  of  a  sea-urchin.     Do  not  imagine  that  star-fishes 
ever  do  turn  into  sea-urchins.     This  is  merely  intended  to 
show  you  the  similarity  of  their  structure. 

5.  According  to  this  arrangement  the  double  rows  of 
perforated  plates  would  represent  the  middle  of  the  rays 
of  the  star-fish  where 

the  tube-feet  are  situ- 
ated, while  the  broad 
belt  of  knobs  corre- 
sponds to  the  strip  of 
spines  on  both  edges 
of  the  ray.  The 
mouth  would  be  un- 
derneath, and  you 
would  of  course  look 
for  the  five  eye-specks 

on  the  top  where  the          Fig  39._sEcTioN  OF  A  SKA-URCHIN. 
ends  of  the  rays  meet.    a>  moatn.  c<  8tomach;  a,  intestine;  o,  arm*; 

You  will  also  find  the         v'  neart?  /»  madreporic  body;  g,  main  water- 
tube  ;  p,  tube-feet ;  z,  spines. 

madreporic    body    at 

the  top,  a  little  on  one  side.  This  small  sieve,  which  is 
so  interesting  in  the  star-fishes,  performs  the  same  service 
for  the  urchin,  and  prevents  the  entrance  of  any  sand  or 
other  solid  substance  into  the  five  tubes  that  pass  under 
the  holes  in  the  shell.  Through  these  holes  are  pro- 
truded the  double  rows  of  tube-feet,  just  like  those  we 
6 


66      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE  SEA  AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

have  studied  in  the  star-fish,  and  they  are  worked  in  the 
same  manner.  It  adds  much  to  the  beauty  and  interest  of 
the  shell  to  know  that  these  lovely  fine  dots  are  openings 
through  which  the  tube-feet  are  supplied  with  water  from 
inside  the  shell.  In  the  diagram  (Fig.  39)  the  madreporic 
body  is  shown  at/,  and  the  tube,  g,  carries  water  to  supply 
the  tube-feet  and  their  little  water-bags,  which  are  shown 
at  p.  Sea-urchins  move  by  means  of  their  tube-feet,  which 
may  be  lengthened  so  as  to  extend  far  beyond  the  spines. 

6.  Growth  of  the  Shell. — The  shell  fits  the  animal  ex- 
actly in  its  infancy,  and  must  still  serve  it  in  old  age,  for 
urchins  never  cast  off  their  coats  as  crabs  and  lobsters 
do.     Being  formed  of  many  small  pieces,  the  shell  grows 
a  little  all  over.     Each  plate  is  surrounded  by  living  flesh. 
This  flesh  secretes  lime  from  the  sea-water  and  deposits  it 
round  the  edge  of  the  plates,  thus  increasing  the  size  of 
the  shell  uniformly.    After  sea-urchins  die  the  spines  drop 
off;  the  shell  is  so  frail  that  it  too  is  soon  broken,  the 
plates  falling  apart. 

7.  The  Spines.— Do  not  omit  to  look  at  the  spines  with 
your  microscopes,  and  see  what  beautifully  carved  col- 
umns they  are  (Fig.  40).     Falling  about  on  the  back  of 
the  urchin,  they  remind  one  of  a  sadly  neglected  grave- 
yard, with  its  tottering  monuments.     Each  spine  is  hol- 
lowed at  the  end  to  fit  a  knob  on  the  shell.     This  forms 
a  perfect  ball-and-socket  joint,  which  is  supplied  with 
delicate  muscles  to  move  the  spines.     As  the  creature 
travels  along,  the  spines   are  constantly  in  motion,  and 
they  look  as  if  they  too  wanted  to  help.     In  some  species 
the  spines  are  very  large,  and  are  used  for  slate-pencils. 
We  should  think  it  quite  luxurious  to  have  such  artistic 
pencils,  yet  many  boys  and  girls  in  out-of-the-way  places, 
especially  where  fishing -vessels  bring  home   curiosities 


SEA-URCHINS. 


67 


Fig.  40. — SPINE  OF  SEA- 
URCHIN,  MAGNIFIED, 
a,  cross  section. 


from  foreign  shores,  have  puzzled  over  their  examples  and 
written  their  copies  with  these  elegantly  fluted  spines. 

8.  The  Teeth.— Did  you  no- 
tice  the   white    spot   in  the 
middle  of  Fig.  37,  also  the 
pointed  beak  near  the  top  of 
Fig.  38  ?    Both  of  these  spots 
show    the    five    white    teeth 
\vlrich    come    together    in   a 
point,  and  may  be  extended 
beyond  the  shell  just  as  they 
are  in  Fig.  38.     You  will  ob- 
serve what  a  great  step  for- 
ward the   sea-urchin  has 
made.    We  have  found  noth- 
ing like  teeth  before  in  the 
lowly  creatures  we  have  been 
studying,  and  here  is  the  ur- 
chin, armed  with   five   hard 

white  teeth,  having  sharp  cutting  edges  like  a  rat's  teeth. 
Each  tooth  has  a  separate  jaw  of  its  own,  and  is  worked 
by  its  own  muscles-  This  singular  arrangement  has  at- 
tracted much  attention,  and  from  the  shape  of  the  jaws 
and  teeth  it  is  known  as  "Aristotle's  lantern." 

9.  Internal  Organs. — The  sea-urchin  is  well  supplied 
with  organs  (as  we  may  see  in  Fig.  39) — the  mouth,  «, 
the  stomach,  c,  the  coiled  intestine,  d,  and  the  anal  open- 
ing, o — whereas  our  studies  heretofore  have  been  about 
animals  with  a  simple  sac  for  a  stomach,  and  all  the  refuse 
of  their  food  was  returned  through  the  mouth.    This  high- 
ly favored  individual  has  also  a  heart,  v,  and  blood-vessels, 
although  the  blood  which  passes  through  them  is  quite 
different  from  that  of  higher  animals. 


68      ANIMAL   LIFE    IN    THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 


Fig.  41. — SAND-DOLLAR. 


10.  Sea-urchins  as  an  Article  of  Food.— The  sea-urchins 
of  the  Mediterranean  are  larger  than  ours,  and  are  used 
for  food,  either  raw  as  we  eat  oysters,  or  boiled.     They 

were  a  favorite  dish  with 
the  ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans.  Bunches  of 
their  eggs  are  also  offer- 
^  ed  for  sale  as  food  in  the 
I  Italian  cities.  The  eggs 
pass  out  of  the  shell 
through  small  openings 

/l^gjf  $  1^J%X./  7      near  the  madreporic  body, 
\  "/^Iry  '/;!''•  and   they  are  often  seen 

on  top  of  the  shell,  sur- 
rounded by  spines  which 
have  been  drawn  together 
to  hold  them. 

11.  Echinoderm  Defined.— Young  people  like  to  use  the 
proper  names  for  things,  and  now  that  we  know  all  this 
about  the  sea-urchin  we  will  give  it  its  right  name,  the 
echinus.    In  your  reading  you  will  also  meet  with  the  word 
echinoderm,  and  it  will  give  you  pleasure  to  recognize  it 
as  an  old  acquaintance.    Echinoderm  means  spiny-skinned. 
It  is  the  general  name  given  to  star-fishes,  sea-urchins,  and 
their  relations,  most  of  which  have  prickly  coverings. 

12.  Boring  in  Rocks. — The  echinus  has  a  curious  habit 
of  boring  holes  in  hard  rocks.     It  sinks  in  the  hole  for  a 
considerable  distance,  and  looks  well  satisfied  with   its 
snug  retreat.     It  is  not  understood  how  the  rock  becomes 
worn   away,  unless   it   is  by   a  rotary  movement  of  the 
body.     Constant  dropping,  we  know  wears  a  stone,  and 
constant  turning  and  twisting  may  do  the  same.     There 
is  no  doubt  the  hole  is  made  by  the  animal  which  occu- 


69 

pies  it,  as  it  fits  exactly,  whether  the  occupant  be  large  or 
small. 

13.  It  is  amusing  to  watch  the  echinus  in  shallow  water 
drag  itself  along  by  its  tube-feet,  and  sometimes  hide  itself 
by  drawing  together  pieces  of  sea-weed  and  gravel. 


Fig.  42. — KEYHOLE-URCHIK. 

14.  Varieties  of  Sea-urchins. — In  visiting  a  good  museum 
you  will  be  surprised  to  see  how  many  different  varieties 
of  these  creatures  there  are.  Some  species  are  flattened, 
and  pass  by  the  name  of  sand-dollars  (Fig.  41),  keyhole- 
urchins  (Fig.  42),  etc.  During  life  the  skeletons  of  these 
animals  were  covered  with  skin,  and  furnished  with  a  fur- 
ry coat  of  little  spines  and  small  tube-feet. 


ANIMAL   LIFE   IN  THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


XI. 
CRINOIDS,  OR  STONE-LILIES. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  ECHINODERMATA  :    CLASS,   CRINOIDEA. 

1.  Where  Crinoids  grow.— While  examining  the  sea-ur- 
chins at  the  museum  do  not  fail  to  hunt  up  the  crinoids 
also.     We  shall  have  to  be  content  with  this  way  of  study- 
ing crinoids,  as  the  living  ones  grow  on  rocky  beds  in  the 
deep  ocean.     They  are  obtained  only  by  dredging,  and 
few  of  us  will  ever  have  an  opportunity  to  see  them. 

2.  Why  they  are  called  Stone-lilies. — Crinoids  are  at- 
tached during  the  whole  or  a  part  of  their  lives  to  the  sea- 
bottom  by  means  of  a  jointed  stalk  which  is  so  flexible  as 
to  bend  freely  in  any  direction.     At  the  upper  end  of  the 
stalk  is  the  cup-shaped  body,  with  its  waving  arms,  which 
may  be  folded  together  like  a  flower-bud,  or  spread  open 
like  the  petals  of  a  full-blown  lily.     Swaying  to  and  fro 
in  the  bright  water,  this  curious  animal  closely  resembles 
a  flower  tossed  by  a  gentle  breeze,  and  as  it  really  has  a 
hard  skeleton  throughout, Sl  stone-lily  "  is  not  a  bad  name 
for  it. 

3.  Crinoids  compared  to  Star-fishes. — Let  us  imagine  a 
star-fish  supported  in  this  way  upon  the   end  of  a  long 
stalk,  and  we  shall  have  a  pretty  good  idea  of  a  crinoid. 
In  comparing  the  two  we  must  invert  the  star-fish,  how- 
ever, as  the  mouth  of  a  crinoid  is  on  the  upper  surface, 
whereas  in  the  other  echinoderms  the  mouth  is  underneath. 


CRIN01DS,  OR  STONE-LILIES. 


71 


The  tube -feet,  like- 
wise, arre  on  the  up- 
per surface  of  the 
arms,  but  they  are 
not  used  for  travel- 
ling about  as  the 
tube  -  feet  of  other 
echinoderms  are. 
The  grooves  contain- 
ing them  are  covered 
with  cilia  which  cre- 
ate currents  of  water 
towards  the  mouth, 
and  carry  to  it  the 
minute  plants  and 
animals  upon  wrhich 
the  crinoid  feeds. 

4.  Skeleton  of  Cir- 
cular Plates.  —  Like 
star  -  fishes  and  sea- 
urchins,  these  cousins 
of  theirs  secrete  lime 
to  form  a  solid  frame- 
work for  their  bod- 
ies. The  lime  is  de- 
posited in  circular 
plates,  which  are  sur- 
rounded and  held  to- 
gether by  living  flesh, 
so  that  they  bend  ea- 
sily. You  can  detect 
these  circular  plates 
in  any  part  of  the  ac- 


Fig.  43. — A  LIVING  CRINOID.    WEST  INDIES. 


V2      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN    THE   SEA    AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

cornpanying  picture.     Indeed,  crinoids  may  be  known  by 
the  little  rings  of  which  they  are  composed. 

5.  Free  Swimming  Crinoids.  —  In  some  crinoids,  as  the 
Comatula,  or  feather-star,  the  animal  is  fastened  to  the 
ground  only  when  young.    Later  in  life  it  drops  from  the 
stalk,  and  is  free  after  this  to  travel  about.     It  can  swim 
through  the  water ;  still,  it  prefers  to  remain  quietly  set- 
tled on  some   stone  or   sea -weed,  waving   its   feathery, 
bright-red    arms  while   it   feeds  upon  the  little  animals 
floating  around.     It  now  resembles  a  star-fish  more  than 
ever,  though  it  moves  only  by  means  of  its  flexible  arms. 

6.  An  Ancient  Family.— The  family  of  crinoids  is  very 
ancient,  and  was  perhaps  at  one  time  the  most  numerous 
family  which   inhabited   the   sea.      Like  some  other  old 
families,  it  has  almost  died  out.     There  are  but  few  spe- 
cies now  living,  and  two  or  three  of  these  have  been  only 
recently  discovered  by  scientific  explorers  while  dredging 
the  deep  waters  of  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Atlantic 
Ocean. 

7.  Fossil  Crinoids. — Fossil  remains  of  crinoids  are  abun- 
dant in  rocks,  showing  that  in  past  ages  they  must  have 
lived  in  great  numbers.     In  France  large  beds  of  rock  are 
formed  of  their  remains,  and  the  same  is  true  of  many 
other  parts  of  Europe  and  North  America.     The  circular 
plates  of  the  crinoids  were  so  loosely  held  together  by 
flesh   that  when   the   animal   died   they  fell    apart,  and 
these  little  disks  which  are  now  found  in  the  rocks  look 
like  button  -  moulds  ornamented  with  beautiful  patterns 
and  markings. 

8.  See  how  the  crinoid  stems  are  piled  upon  each  other 
in  the  limestone  rock  (Fig.  44),  and  notice  the  little  hole 
in  the  middle  of  each.      Their  arrangement  in  the  rock 
(Fig.  45)  is  much  more  orderly.     No  wonder  that  such 


CBINOIDS,  OR  STONE-LILIES.  73 

fine  old  crinoids  as  this  should  have  been  mistaken  for 
petrified  flowers. 

9.  How  Fossils  caine  to  be  in  the  Rocks.  —  Perhaps  you 
will  wonder  how  animals  can  be  embedded  in  hard  rocks. 


Fig.  44. — CRINOIDAL  LIMESTONE. 

To  understand  this  we  must  remember  that  many  of  our 
rocks  are  formed  of  sand  or  mud,  which  has  become  hard 
from  the  constant  pressure  of  other  layers  of  sand  and 
mud  that  have  accumulated  above  them.  Most  of  these 
layers  were  formed  underneath  the  sea.  The  rocks  must 
have  been  in  this  soft  condition  when  the  animals  died  .and 
were  buried  in  them.  As  the  rocks  hardened,  the  solid 
parts  of  the  animals  were  preserved  in  a  stony  bed,  the 
hard  rock  fitting  closely  into  every  crack  and  cranny. 
When  these  rocks  are  split  open  we  sometimes  find  the 
remains  of  the  animal  on  one  side  of  the  crack,  and  a 
perfect  impression  on  the  other.  These  petrified  remains 
are  called  fossils,  and  they  tell  us  a  fascinating  story  of 
the  curious  animals  and  plants  that  lived  long  ago. 


74      ANIMAL    LIFE    IN    THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 

10.  Records  of  our  Earth's  History. — The  true  nature  of 
fossils,  and  the  causes  which  placed  them  in  solid  rocks, 
interested  the  poets  and  philosophers  long  before  the 
Christian  era.  It  is  only  within  the  last  century,  how- 
ever, that  they  have  been  accepted  as  records  of  the  his- 
tory of  our  earth.  There  are  many  animals  now  entirely 
extinct  of  whose  existence  we  should  know  nothing  but 


Fijr.  45. — A  FOSSIL  CRINOID. 

for  their  fossil  remains.  These  relics  of  the  past  tell  also 
of  great  changes  from  heat  to  cold  in  certain  parts  of 
the  earth.  For  instance,  the  bones  and  teeth  of  ele- 
phants, rhinoceroses,  and  other  animals  that  require 
warm  climates  are  found  in  Siberia  and  in  other  cold 
countries,  which  shows  that  the  polar  regions  were  once 
much  warmer  than  they  are  now.  Again,  on  the  other 


CRINOIDS,  OR  STONE-LILIES.  75 

hand,  remains  of  reindeer  are  found  in  Southern  Europe, 
indicating  extreme  cold  at  another  period  in  the  earth's 
history. 

1 1.  So  you  see  these  fossils  have  wonderful  secrets  to  tell. 
Strange,  old-fashioned  secrets,  for  the  formation  of  the 
rocks  has  been  very  slow,  and  the  animals  buried  in  them 
must  have  died  thousands  of  years  ago.     Crinoids  and 
corals  and  shells  which  live  only  in  the  ocean  are  found 
in  a  fossil  condition  in  the  interior  of  the  dry  land,  prov- 
ing beyond  a  doubt  that  these  parts  of  our  earth  must  at 
one  time  have  been  beneath  the  sea. 

12.  Is  it  not  a  lovely  thought  that  these  delicate  crinoids 
which  beautified  the  ocean  long  before  we  were  here  to 
admire  them  are  not  utterly  destroyed,  but  that  some  of 
their  skeletons  have  been  preserved  and  are  waiting  for 
us  in  the  gray  old  rocks,  if  only  our  tastes  are  simple  and 
cultivated  enough  to  find  them  out? 


76     ANIMAL    LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


XII. 
SEA-CUCUMBERS. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  ECHINODERMATA :    CLASS,  HOLOTHUROIDEA, 

1.  The  New  England  Coast  favorable  for  Growth  of  Sea- 
animals. — The  shore  of  Maine,  you  will  remember,  is  very 
uneven,  being  broken  by  a  succession  of  sharp  promonto- 
ries and  quiet  bays,  and  skirted  with  a  fringe  of  lovely 
islands.     Here  is  an  endless  variety  of  bold  rocky  cliffs,  of 
secluded  caves  and  quiet  little  pools,  with   the  pleasing 
surprise  of   occasional    short    sandy    beaches.      We   can 
scarcely  imagine  a  shore  better  fitted  than  this  to  suit  the 
various  tastes  of  the  sea-creatures,  and  our  search  here  is 
pretty  sure  to  be  rewarded  by  finding  sea-anemones,  star- 
fishes, sea-urchins,  sea-cucumbers,  etc.,  besides  a  variety  of 
shell-fishes.     Sea-weeds  also  grow  in  abundance,  coloring 
the  water  with  their  beautiful  tints. 

2.  This  is  true  of  the  New  England  coast  as  far  south 
as  Cape  Cod,  while  below  that  point  the  sandy  beaches  of 
the  Atlantic  shore  are  not  favorable  for  the  growth  ol 
these  animals.     In  addition  to  the  loose  sand  which  is 
washed  up  on  the  beach,  the  great  number  of  rivers  emp- 
tying fresh -water  into  the  sea  renders  it  still  more  unfa- 
vorable for  their  abode. 

3.  Sea-cucumber. — As  found  on  the  beach,  a  sea-cucum- 
ber would  remind  you  of  a  leather  bag,  somewhat  worm- 
like  in  form,  with  no  hard  shell,  and  marked  with  rows  of 
warts  down  the  sides  like  a  cucumber  (Fig.  46).     The  skin 


SEA-CUCUMBERS.  77 

is  tough,  yet  it  may  expand  and  contract  in  such  a  way  as 
to  give  these  animals  the  curious  power  of  changing  their 
shape. 


Fig.  46. — SKA-CUCUMBERS  (HOLOTHURIANS). 

4.  Changes  into  Odd  Shapes. — Upon  watching  the  move- 
ments of  a  sea-cucumber  you  will  be  amused  at  the  odd 
shapes  into  which  it  changes.      It  sometimes  lengthens 
out  its  body  like  a  worm,  then  drawing  itself  in  tightly 
around  the  mouth,  it  swells  out  the  other  end  of  the  body 
like  a  jug.     Suddenly,  tiring  of  this  freak,  it  can  make  an 
hour-glass  by  contracting  its  body,  as  if  a  string  were  tied 
around  the  middle  of  it,  with  bulges  above  and  below. 

5.  Feathery  Tentacles  around  the  Mouth, — The  tentacles 
of   a  sea-cucumber  form  a   feathery   fringe  around  the 
mouth.    Their  number  is  usually  ten,  and  they  have  the 
same  curious  power  of  changing  their  shape  that  we  have 
noticed  in  the  body  of  the  animal.     The  mouth  may  be 
distinctly  seen  in  Fig.  47,  which  represents  another  spe- 
cies of  sea-cucumber.     It  opens  into  a  throat  leading  to 
the  stomach.     The  long  intestine  passes  to  the  other  ex- 
tremity of  the  body. 


78      ANIMAL    LIFE    IN   THE    SEA    AND    ON   THE   LAND. 


6.  Sea-cucumber  an  Echinoderm. — From  the  general  ap- 
pearance of  the  sea- cucumber  you  will  scarcely  suspect  that 
it  is  one  of  the  echinoderms,  but,  after  watching  it  creep 
over  the  rocks,  you  can  see  the  relationship.     The  tube- 
feet  steal  out  noiselessly  from  the  wart-like  spots,  as  seen 
in  Fig.  48,  and  the  sea-cucumber  travels  just  like  a  sea- 
urchin.       The    tube- 
feet  are  arranged  on 
five   muscular  bands 
running  from  end  to 
end,  and  dividing  the 
body   into    five    seg- 
ments.     The    spaces 
between     the     tube- 
feet     correspond     to 
the  spaces  which  are 
covered   with    spines 
in     the     sea  -  urchin. 
One   species   of   sea- 
cucumber     has     the 
tube-feet   all  collect- 
ed on  the  under  side 
of  the  body  (Fig.  49). 
It  is  called  a    "sea- 
Grange"    probably 
from      the      rough 

rounded  markings  on  its  surface.  In  those  species  which 
have  no  tube-feet  the  animal  drags  itself  along  by  the  aid 
of  anchor-shaped  spicules  scattered  through  the  skin. 

7.  Resemblance  to  other  Radiates.  — The  madreporic  body 
is  not  on  the  outer  surface,  as  it  is  in  other  members  of  the 
family.     It  opens  upon  a  little  canal  in  the  interior,  which 
supplies  the  tube-feet  with  water.     Although  hidden  from 


.  47. — SEA-CUCUMBERS. 


SEA-CUC  UMBERS. 


79 


A 


our  view,  this  tiny  sieve  filters  the  water  perfectly,  and 

allows  no  irritating  particles  to  enter  the  tube.     The  only 

resemblance  to  the   other   Radiates  which  we  detect  in 

these   animals   is   in 

the  arrangement   of 

their     tentacles, 

their    tube  -  feet, 

and    muscular 

bands. 

8.  Castaway 
Organs  Replaced. 

—The  sea-cucumber 
does  not  break  itself  to 
pieces  as  the  star -fish 
does,  but  it  has  a  pecul- 
iarity quite  as  remark- 
able :  when  alarmed  it 
throws  away  various 
organs  from  the  inte- 
rior of  the  body,  and, 
strange  to  say,  these 
castaway  organs  are 
soon  replaced  by  oth- 
ers. 

9.  Holothurians  — 
where  found.  —  Sea-cu- 
cumbers,   or    holothu- Fig'  48'~A 
rians,  as  they  are  prop- 
erly called,  are  most  abundant  in  tropical  seas,  where  they 
lie  in  the  mud,  or  in  shallow  water,  with  their  tentacles 
floating  in  expectation  of  prey.     These  creatures,  as  found 
on  our  shores,  with  their  tentacles  snugly  stowed  away, 
have  no   pretensions  to  beauty.     One  species,  however, 


(PENTACTA  FRON- 


80      ANIMAL    LIFE    IN   THE   SEA    AND   ON   THE    LAND. 


from  the  Pacific  Ocean  is  described  as  being  much  hand- 
somer than  the  rest  of  its  kind.  The  body  is  as  trans- 
parent as  glass,  and  of  a  lovely  rose-color,  with  fine  white 


3^V'  £$r.:MfrWSfi7  M^s 


stripes  running 
from  one  end  tc 
the  other,  and 
crowned  with  a 
wreath  of  pure 
white  tentacles. 
1 0.  An  Article 
of  Food. — Anoth- 
er kind  of  sea- 
cucumber,  called 
the  trepang,  is  a 
favorite  article 
of  food  with  the 
Chinese.  Many 
thousand  junks  are  engaged  in  the  trepang  fisheries  in  the 
Indian  Ocean.  The  trepangs  are  caught  with  a  harpoon 
as  they  creep  over  the  rocks  and  corals,  or,  when  the 


Fig.  49. — SEA-ORANGE. 


SEA-CUCUMBERS.  83 

water  is  shallow,  they  are  brought  up  by  divers.  While 
yet  alive  the  animals  are  thrown  into  boiling  sea-water, 
and  stirred  with  a  long  stick.  After  being  boiled  and 
flattened  with  stones,  the  Malay  fishermen  spread  them 
on  bamboo  mats,  where  they  are  dried  and  smoked  ;  then 
they  are  packed  and  shipped  to  the  Chinese  market. 

11.  Jelly  Lumps  in  the  Sea  are  often  undeveloped  Young.— 
In  strolling  on  the  sea-shore  we  often  find  little  lumps  of 
clear,  transparent  jelly  left  there  by  the  retreating  tide. 
Many  of  these  jelly  lumps  are  the  undeveloped  young  of 
the  class  of  animals  we  have  been  studying  ;  and  if  some 
time  you  should  place  a  number  of  them  in  sea-water,  and 
change  the  water  frequently,  you  may  have  the  pleasure 
of  watching  their  development,  and  see  what  special  forms 
they  assume.    These  animals  produce  young  ones  in  great 
abundance.     It  is  necessary  they  should  do  so,  or  the  race 
would  soon  die  out,  as  they  are  devoured  in  such  num- 
bers by  fishes  that  only  a  small  proportion  of  them  live 
to  maturity. 

12,  Animals  Preying  upon  Others. — The  sea  contains 
myriads  of  animals  that  prey  upon  each  other,  the  larger 
ones  eating  the  smaller  ;  and  we  can  form  but  little  idea 
of  the  amount  of  life  continually  sacrificed  for  the  support 
of  that  which  remains.     It  seems  almost  marvellous  that 
any  of  the  delicate  little  ones  should  escape  the  hungry 
hordes  that  pursue  them  in  this  eager  struggle  for  life. 


82        ANIMAL   LIFE   IN  THE  SEA   AND   ON  THE   LAND. 


XIII. 
EARTH-WORMS. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  ANARTHROPODA  :    CLASS,  ANNELIDA. 

1.  The  Work  of  Earth-worms. — Who  would  have  thought 
the  little  earth-worm  had  any  work  to  do  in  the  world,  or 
was  of  other  use  than  to  bait  fish-hooks  ?     Yet  it  has  an 
important  part  to  perform,  and  we  are  now  told  that  the 
present  fertile  condition  of  the  earth  is  largely  due  to  the 
action  of  earth-worms. 

2.  If  this  is  the  case,  we  must  look  at  these  industrious 
workers  more  carefully.      Having  selected  a  fine   large 
specimen,  let  us  put  it  on  a  piece  of  white  paper,  where  it 
will  show  to  advantage. 

3.  A  Land  Animal. — This  is  the  first  animal  we  have 
examined  which  lives  upon  land.    The  simplest  forms  of 
life  are  always  found  in  water,  but  from  this  point  in  our 
studies  we  shall  sometimes  take  our  specimens  from  the 
land,  and  the  boys  and  girls  all  over  the  country  will  have 
an  equal  chance  to  obtain  them.     Even  those  who  live  in 
large  cities  can  procure  earth-worms. 

4.  Study  of  the  Illustration. — Let  us  study  for  a  moment 
the  illustration  of  an  earth-worm  that  we  have  here.    The 
worm  itself  is  shown  at  Fig.  50,  ay  b  is  a  small  part  of  it 
magnified  so  as  to  show  the  bristles  pointing  backward. 
The  egg  of  the  worm,  c,  is  curiously  constructed,  having 
a  valve  at  one  end.     In  d  we  see  the  young  worm,  which 
has  opened  the  valve  and  is  coming  out  of  the  egg. 


EARTH-WORMS. 


83 


5.  The  Body  made  up  of  Segments— Articulates.  — The 
body  of  the  worm  tapers  towards  each  end,  so  that  we  can 
scarcely  tell  the  head  from  the  tail  un- 
less we  watch  a  worm  as  it  is  creeping. 

Notice  all  those  little  rings  across  the 
body  and  see  how  they  slip  in  and 
out  of  each  other  as  the  worm  moves. 
These  rings  can  be  drawn  so  close  to- 
gether that  a  large  worm  will  some- 
times make  itself  very  short.  Does 
this  creature  look  like  a  Radiate? 
Certainly  it  does  not,  and  we  will  now 
learn  that  all  animals  which  have  the 
body  made  up  of  rings  or  segments 
extending  crosswise  belong  to  a  class 
called  Articulates. 

6.  The  Bristles,  —  The  earth  -  worm 
contains   from   one    hundred   to   two 
hundred  of  these  rings,  each  of  which 
is  furnished  with  four  pairs  of  bris- 
tles   pointing    backward.      You    can 
easily  feel   them   with   your   fingers. 
The    bristles   assist  in  crawling,  and 

prevent  the  worm  from  slipping  back  as  the  rings  are 
contracted  and  expanded.  Still,  the  worm  can  creep  back- 
ward when  it  desires  to,  and  you  may  have  noticed  how 
rapidly  these  timid  animals  draw  back  into  their  holes. 

7.  Organs, — Earth-worms  have  no  distinct  head  or  eyes. 
The  mouth  consists  of  two  lips,  and  it  has  neither  teeth 
nor  tentacles.     The  semi-transparent  body  will  enable  you 
to  see  the  food  canal,  extending  from  the  mouth  through 
the  whole  length  of  the  worm,  and  enlarged  in  two  places 
to  form  the  crop  and  gizzard.     Grains  of  sand  and  small 


Fig.  50. — EAIITH-WORM. 


84      ANIMAL    LIFE    IN    THE    SEA    AND    ON   THE    LAND. 

stones  are  often  found  within  the  strong  gizzard,  where 
they  probably  act  as  millstones  in  helping  to  grind  the  food. 
Birds,  we  know,  are  in  the  habit  of  swallowing  stones  for 
the  same  purpose. 

8.  Blood-vessels— Ganglia.— We  find  no  heart  in  these 
lowly  creatures,  but  in  its  place  a  set  of  blood-vessels, 
which  contract  in  such  a  way  as  to  force  the  blood  from 
the  tail   towards   the   head.     It  is  supposed  that  earth- 
worms breathe  by  tubes  opening  upon  the  external  sur- 
face of  their  bodies.     Each  one  of  the  rings  is  supplied 
with  a  pair  of  nervous  ganglia.    This  is  true  of  all  the 
Articulates.    In  animals  of  this  group,  each  segment  of  the 
body  is  supplied  with  its  own  nervous  ganglia.     Ganglia 
are  nerve-centres  which  consist  of  a  mass  of  nerve -cells 
sending  out  nerve-fibres  to  other  parts  of  the  body. 

9.  Food  of  Earth-worms. — Worms  live  in  burrows  in  the 
ground,  and  in  making  them  they   swallow  an  almost  in- 
credible amount  of  earth,  out  of  which  they  take  all  the 
nourishing  matter.     They  do  not  confine  themselves,  how- 
ever, to  this  coarse  diet,  but  feed  upon  leaves  and  stems, 
from  the  edges  of  which  they  suck  off  little  bits,  having 
first  drawn  them  into  their  burrows  for  a  distance  of  two 
or  three  inches.     Leaves  are  also  dragged  in  for  plugging 
their  burrows,  and  when  they  cannot  get  leaves  for  this 
purpose  they  sometimes  pile  up  heaps  of  stone  to  close  the 
entrance.     This  work  is  all  done  during  the  night. 

10.  The  Burrows. — The  burrows  are  often  lined  with  a 
layer  of  fine  earth,  which  seems  not  only  to  strengthen  the 
walls,  but  to  form  a  smooth  surface  for  the  worm's  body. 
At  the  bottom  of  the  burrow  there  is  generally  an  en- 
larged chamber  which  contains  small  stones,  and  here  the 
worms  pass  the  winter  rolled  up  two  or  three  together  in 
a  ball. 


EARTH-WORMS.  85 

11.  Castings  made  by  Earth-worms. — Now,  if  we  want  to 
know  what  becomes  of  the  earth  which  is  swallowed  by 
worms,  we  have  but  to  remember  the  rounded,  worm-like 
heaps  of  earth  called  "  castings  "  which  are  so  thick  among 
the  grass,  and  on  the  untrodden  parts  of  paths  and  drives, 
or  in  the  flower-pots  when  a  few  worms  have  been  dug  up 
with  our  favorite  house-plants.     When  a  worm  conies  to 
the  surface  to  empty  its  body  it  backs  out  of  its  hole,  and 
ejects  the  earth  which  it  has  swallowed  in  spurts,  first  on 
one  side,  then  on  the  other,  until  a  little  heap  is  formed, 
which  hardens  in  drying.     It  is  estimated  that  the  quan- 
tity of  fine  earth  thus  carried  to  the  surface  in  the  course 
of  a  year  would  in  many  places  form  a  layer  one-fifth  of 
an  inch  in  thickness,  amounting  to  a  weight  of  more  than 
ten  tons  on  each  acre. 

12.  Vegetable  Mould  the  Work  of  Earth-worms.— Have 
you  ever  noticed  the  layers  of  different-colored  earth  that 
are  exposed  in  digging  a  well  or  a  cellar  ?    The  upper  lay- 
er, you  may  remember,  is  mostly  of  a  rich  dark  color.     It 
consists  of  fine  soil  two  or  three  inches  de,ep,  which  has 
been  sifted  of  stones  and  coarse  materials,  and  is  spoken 
of  as  "  vegetable  mould."     This  fertile  layer  is  the  work 
of  earth-worms. 

13.  Charles  Darwin  estimated  that  the  whole  mass  of 
vegetable  mould  which  is  spread  over  the  surface  of  the 
earth  passes  through  the  bodies  of  worms  once  every  four 
years,  and  in  this  way  fresh  masses  of  earth  are  constantly 
exposed  to  the  influence  of  rain  and  wind.     Worms  also  do 
much  to  enrich  the  soil  by  the  great  number  of  leaves  and 
twigs  drawn  into  their  burrows. 

14.  "  The  bones  of  dead  animals,  the  harder  parts  of 
insects,  the  shells  of  land  mollusks,  leaves,  twigs,  etc.,  are 
before  long  all  buried  beneath  the  castings  of  worms,  and 


86      ANIMAL    LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

are  thus  brought  in  a  more  or  less  decayed  state  within 
reach  of  the  roots  of  plants." 

15.  The  Earth  Ploughed  by  Worms.— "The  plough  is  one 
of  the  most  ancient  and  most  valuable  of  man's  inven- 
tions ;  but  long  before  he  existed  the  land  was,  in  fact,  reg- 
ularly ploughed,  and  still  continues  to  be  thus  ploughed, 
by  earth-worms.     It  may  be  doubted  whether  there   are 
many  other  animals  which  have  played  so  important  a 
part  in  the  history  of  the  world  as  have  these  lowly  or- 
ganized creatures."     The  corals,  indeed,  have  done  more 
conspicuous  work  in  constructing  great  reefs  and  islands, 
but  these  are  mostly  confined  to  the  tropical  zones. 

16.  How  Stones  and  Pavements  Disappear. — It  is  no  new 
discovery  that  pebbles  and  cinders  and  even  large  stones 
lying  on  the  ground  in  a  few  years  disappear.     Neglected 
and   unused    pavements  also  become  covered  with    soil, 
much  of  which  has  been  raised  by  these  busy  little  work- 
ers.    Such  every-day  wonders  escape  the  attention  of  most 
of  us,  but  Charles  Darwin,  while  pursuing  his  studies  and 
observations  upon  various  subjects,  still  found  time  to  no- 
tice the  worms.     He  and  his  sons  watched  them  for  more 
than  thirty-five  years  before  he  published  the  book  which 
giv7es  these  interesting  facts. 

17.  Destruction  of  Worms  by  Birds. — He  says  that  worms 
often  lie  motionless  for  hours  just  beneath  the  mouth  of 
their  burrows,  so  that  by  looking  closely  their  heads  may 
be  seen.     If  the  earth  or  rubbish  over  the  burrow  be  sud- 
denly removed,  the  worm  retreats  rapidly.     This  habit  of 
lying  near  the  surface  leads  to  great  destruction.     At  cer- 
tain seasons  of  the  year  the  thrushes  and  blackbirds  draw 
large  numbers  out  of  their  holes.     Watch  a  robin  some 
morning  hopping  over  the  lawn,  and   see  how  it  pecks, 
and  pecks,  at  some  object,  finally  bracing  itself  upon  its 


EARTH-WORMS.  87 

tail,  and  pulling  with  all  its  might,  as  if  determined  to 
draw  out  its  victim;  but  the  worm  holds  on  so  tightly  by 
its  short  bristles  that  it  is  no  easy  matter  for  the  robin  to 
capture  it. 

1 8.  Found  all  over  the  World. — Earth-worms  exist  all  over 
the  world,  in  cold  countries  as  well  as  in  warm  ones,  and 
even  in  small  islands  far  out  in  the  ocean.     They  require 
some  moisture,  and  during  very  dry  weather,  or  when  the 
ground  is  frozen,  they  retire  to  a  considerable  depth. 

19.  Large  numbers  of  worms  are  often  found  dead  on 
the  pavements  after  a  heavy  rain.    As  earth-worms  like 
moisture,  it  is  scarcely  probable  these  have  been  drowned. 
Darwin  suggests  that  they  were  already  sick,  and  that 
the  flood  may  only  have  hastened  their  deatn. 


ANIMAL    LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 


XIV. 

CEABS. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  ARTHBOPODA  :    CLASS,  CRUSTACEA. 

1.  Crabs. — Crabs  are  curious  creatures.  At  the  first 
glance  we  can  scarcely  tell  which  is  the  head.  Notice 
the  position  of  the  eyes  (Fig.  51),  and  that  will  settle  the 


Fig.  51. — OR  AH. 


question.  Walking,  as  they  do,  forward,  backward,  and 
even  sideways,  with  equal  ease,  it  seems  as  if  they  too 
might  be  slightly  puzzled  about  their  formation,  and  so, 


CRABS.  89 

not  stopping  to  decide  which  part  is  intended  to  go  fore- 
most, they  dart  off  on  a  venture,  and  in  the  oddest  manner 
possible. 

2.  Abundant  on  the  Sea-shore. — They  are  so  abundant  on 
all  our  sea-shores  that  we  rarely  lift  a  bunch  of  sea-weed 
or  poke  among  the  rubbish  there  without  disturbing  their 
haunts,  yet  they  scramble  off  and  hide  in  the  sand  so  quick- 
ly that  we  are  not  much  wiser  for  their  discovery.     Let  us 
pick  up  some  cast-off  shell  and  make  a  closer  examina- 
tion. 

3.  Cephalo-thorax. — The  bodies  of  higher  animals  con- 
tain three  principal  cavities — the  head,  thorax,  and  abdo- 
men.    In  crabs,  on  the  contrary,  the  head  and  thorax  are 
so  closely  united  that  we  cannot  distinguish  them,  and  they 
are  covered  by  the  same  shell.     The  proper  name  for  a 
head  and  thorax  thus  united  is  "  ceph-a-lo-thorax." 

4.  Two  Principal  Parts. — A  crab,  consequently,  has  two 
principal  parts  —  the  cephalo-thorax  and  the  abdomen — 
each  containing  a  number  of  segments  of  its  own.     To  the 
cephalo-thorax  are  attached  five  pairs  of  jointed  legs.    The 
front  pair  are  much  larger  than  the  others,  and  form  the 
claws.     The  abdomen  consists  of  six  segments  ;  but  it  is 
small  and  inconspicuous,  being  folded  under  the  cephalo- 
thorax. 

5.  Stalked  Eyes. — The  compound  eyes  of  crabs  are  on 
long  stalks,  and  they  may  be  turned  in  different  directions 
or  folded  back  into  little  grooves  in  the  shell. 

6.  The  Gills. — Crabs  breathe   by  gills,  which  are  leaf- 
like  plates  so  situated  as  to  be  readily  bathed  with  water. 
They  contain  a  dense  net-work  of  blood-vessels,  through 
whose  thin  walls  the  oxygen  in  the  water  finds  its  way 
and  mixes  with  the  blood  to  purify  it.     The  crab's  heart 
consists  of  a  single  contractile  sac, 


90      ANIMAL    LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

7.  How  Crustaceans  shed  their  Shells. — Crabs  are  often 
spoken  of  as  crustaceans.     The  name  will  at  once  suggest 
animals  having  a  hard  crust.     As  this  crust  contains  a 
number  of  pieces  exactly  fitted  to  one  another,  it  has  been 
compared  to  the  armor  worn  by  soldiers  in  olden  times. 
The  manner  in  which  it  is  shed  during  the  growth  of  the 
crab  is  curious  and  interesting.     This  hard  shell  never  in- 
creases in  size;  therefore,  as  the  crab  grows  its  shell  be- 
comes too  small,  and  is  cast  off.     The  discarded  shell  has 
the  eye-stalks  and  legs  attached,  and  looks  like  the  perfect 
animal.    When  the  proper  time  for  this  change  arrives,' 
the  body  shrinks  away  from  the  shell,  separating  from  it 
at  all  points,  and  the  animal  works  its  way  out  of  its  old 
case.     The   exhausted   creature  now   remains   quietly  in 
some  secluded  place,  increasing  rapidly  in  size,  until  the 
soft  skin  again  hardens  into  a  new  shell. 

8.  This  is  a  painful  and  perilous  experience  for  the  poor 
crabs.     Occurring  as  it  does  several  times  in  the  summer, 
their  weak  and  unprotected  bodies  fall  an  easy  prey  to 
their  enemies,  and  they  are  often  devoured  even  by  other 
crabs  which  happen  to  be  in  better  plight.    Now  it  is  that 
they  are  known  as  "  soft-shelled  "  crabs. 

9.  Destroyed  by  other  Animals. — Crustaceans,  when  ful- 
ly coated  with  mail,  are  strong  and  destructive,  fighting 
among  themselves  as  well  as  with  other  animals.     They 
eat  any  small  creatures  that  come  in  their  way,  whether 
living  or  dead.     On  the  other  hand,  they  themselves  are 
destroyed  by  larger  animals,  and  crustaceans  form  a  great 
part  of  the  food  of  star-fishes,  sea-urchins,  mollusks,  and 
many  kinds  of  fishes  and  birds;  consequently,  great  num- 
bers of  them  are  killed  before  reaching  their  full  size. 
To  protect  the  race  from  destruction  by  this  loss  of  life, 
all  crustaceans  produce  a  large  number  of  eggs. 


CRABS. 


91 


Fig.  52. — EARLY  FORM  OP  THE  CRAB. 


i  0.  Young  Crabs  unlike  the  Old  Ones.  —  Young  crabs 
(Fig.  52)  are  so  unlike  the  full-grown  ones  that  natural- 
ists formerly  thought  they  belonged  to  a  different  class 
of  animals.  While  yet 
very  small  they  rise 
to  the  surface  of  the 
water,  and  swim  about 
freely,  until,  after  pass- 
ing through  several 
changes,  the  body  be- 
comes large  and  heavy 
towards  the  head,  and 
the  young  crabs,  losing  the  power  of  swimming,  sink  to 
the  bottom,  where  they  hide  for  a  time.  As  they  gain 
in  size  and  strength,  and  are  ready  to  begin  their  new 
manner  of  living,  they  creep  towards  the  shore,  and  most 
of  them  pass  the  rest  of  their  days  in  shallow  water  among 
the  sea-weed. 

11.  Where  they  Live. — In  the  tropics  some  species  live 
in  the  fresh  water  of  brooks  and  rivers.     Others  live  in 
the  shades  of  damp  forests;  but,  when  breeding-time  ar- 
rives, they  visit  the  sea-shore  to  deposit  their  eggs.     The 
land -crabs  of  Jamaica  even  live  on  the  mountain -tops, 
yet  every  year  they  yield  to  a  longing  for  their  old  home, 
and  come  down  to  the  shores  of  the  Caribbean  Sea  to 
lay  their  eggs.     This  duty  performed,  they  return  again 
to  the  mountains. 

12.  The  Hermit-crab. — The  hermit-crab  (Fig.  53)  is  al- 
ways an  object  of  interest.    Unlike  most  other  crustaceans, 
it  has  no  shell  to  protect  the  soft  body,  and  a  tempting 
morsel  is  thus  exposed.     The  hermit,  conscious  of  its  weak 
point,  seeks  shelter  by  taking  possession  of  some  spiral 
shell  in  which  to  place  its  soft  abdomen.     The  hard  claws 


(J2      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN  THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


Fig.  53. — HEHM IT-CRAB. 


torn    in 
than 


pieces 
quit    its 


and  the  first  two  pairs  of  feet  generally  hang  out  over  the 
edge  of  the  shell,  which  henceforth  moves  about  upon  the 

crab's  back  as  if  the 
two  belonged  together. 
The  shorter  hind -feet 
are  roughened,  thus  en- 
abling the  crab  to  hold 
on  to  the  inside  of  the 
shell,  to  which  it  clings 
so  tightly  that  it  will 
sometimes  allow  itself 
to  be 
rather 
hold. 

13.  As  the  hermit  grows  it  needs  to  hunt  up  a  larger 
home,  and  it  may  be  seen  creeping  along  the  shore,  exam- 
ining and  turning  over  shells  to  select  one,  often  trying  on 
several  before  it  is  suited — much  as  a  boy  might  try  on 
several  pairs  of  boots  before  he  is  fitted  exactly.     Should 
a  hermit  fancy  the  shell  of  some  living  snail,  it  would  not 
hesitate  to  kill  and  eat  the  owner,  and  then  coolly  take 
possession  of  the  shell.    Two  hermits  are  sometimes  found 
fighting  for  the  same  shell. 

14.  Fiddler-crabs. — Fiddler-crabs  (Fig.  54)  have  one  claw 
much  larger  than  the  other,  and  as  they  walk  sideways 
they  hold  up  the    large  claw    in   a  threatening   manner. 
They  dig  holes  in  the  mud  to  live  in,  and  they  enter  these 
homes  with  extreme  caution.      Running  quickly  to  the  en- 
trance, they  pause  a  while,  turn  their  stalked  eyes  in  every 
direction,  and  then  slip  suddenly  in.     They  are  not  easily 
caught,  for  they  dart  into  their  holes  quickly  when  alarmed. 

15.  Effect  of  Use  upon  an  Organ.— The  fiddler-crab  is  a 
good  illustration  of  the  effect  of  use  upon  any  one  organ. 


CRABS.  93 

The  large  claw  so  peculiar  to  this  group  belongs  only  to 
the  males,  who  are  great  fighters.  They  use  the  large  claw 
in  their  combats,  which  fact  accounts  for  its  increased  size. 
The  more  peaceable  females  have  no  need  of  so  powerful  a 
weapon,  consequently  they  do  not  possess  this  striking  pe- 
culiarity of  their  mates,  and,  on  the  contrary,  have  small 
weak  claws. 


Fig.  54. — FIDDLER-CRAB. 

16.  Pea-crabs. — Many  of  you  have  seen  the  little  round 
crabs  that  live  in  oyster-shells.     These  pea-crabs,  or  oys- 
ter-crabs, as  they  are  called,  are  considered  a  delicacy,  and 
are  sometimes  collected  and  sold  by  the  dozen.     Having 
no  hard  covering,  they  always  take  up  their  abode  within 
the  shell  of  the  oyster  or  some  other  Bivalve.     They  are 
not  prisoners  within  the  shell,  as  they  venture  out  into  the 
water  sometimes,  and  return  again  when  they  wish. 

17.  They  are  said  not  to  annoy  the  oyster  in  the  least,  or 
to  deprive  it  of  its  food,  since  they  eat  certain  small  animals 
which  float  into  the  shell,  but  which  the  oyster  never  feeds 


94      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 


upon.     Strange  to  say,  it  is  only  the  female  that  shuts  her- 
self up  within  the  narrow  limits  of  an  oyster-shell.     The 
male  is  much  smaller,  and  frolics  about 
on  the  surface  of  the  sea. 

18.  Horse-shoe  Crab. — Going  from 
one  extreme  to  the  other,  let  us  now 
notice  the  horse-shoe-crab,  or  king- 
crab,  as  it  is  also  called,  because  it  is 
the  largest  of  all  our  crabs.  This  sin- 
gular dark -brown  crab,  with  a  long, 
stiff  tail,  is  very  different,  as  you  will 
see,  from  ordinary  crabs.  It  partly 
buries  itself  in  the  sand  to  hunt  for 
its  food,  and  the  cast-off  shells  of  all 
sizes,  from  cute  little  ones  that  have 
been  shed  by  tiny  infants  to  those  of 
the  full-grown  king-crab,  are  often 
found  on  sandy  beaches.  An  egg  of 
the  king-crab,  one-third  larger  than  life,  is  shown  in  the 
illustration  (Fig.  55).  Several  days  before  the  egg  hatches 
the  young  crab  may  be  seen  sporting  about  within  the 
transparent  shell  of  the  egg. 


Fig.  55.— KING-CRAB 


LOBSTEKS.  95 


XV. 
LOBSTERS. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  ARTHROPODA  :    CLASS,  CRUSTACEA. 

1.  Lobsters  and  Crabs  Compared. — Lobsters,  as  well  as 
crabs,  have  the  head  and  thorax  united,  forming  a  ceph- 
alo- thorax.      The  compound  eyes  are  on  long,  movable 
stalks.     Behind  these  are  two  pairs  of  jointed  antennae  or 
feelers.     But  near  the  mouth  are  five  pairs  of  "  jaw-feet," 
which  we  do  not  find  in  crabs ;  these,  and  some  other  ad- 
ditional organs,  point  to  a  difference  in  their  manner  of 
living  which  we  shall  now  consider. 

2.  As  lobsters  live  entirely  under  water,  they  breathe 
only  by  gills,  which  are  richly  supplied  with  blood.     The 
gills  are  situated  in  a  cavity  under  the  body,  and  each 
plate  of  the  gills  is  attached  to  one  of  the  legs.    A  current 
of  sea-water  is  kept  passing  over  the  gills,  partly  by  the 
movement  of  the  legs,  and  partly  by  a  spoon -shaped  ap- 
pendage to  the  second  pair  of  jaw-feet,  which  constantly 
bales  out  the  water  from  the  gill  cavity. 

3.  The  Claws. — A  pair  of  true  walking  legs  is  attached 
to  each  of  the  last  five  segments  of  the  cephalo-thorax. 
The  front  pair  of  legs  forms  the  claws  ;  these  are  very 
large,  and  are  armed  with  strong  pincers.     One  claw  has 
sharp  teeth  for  tearing  food  ;  the  other  has  rounded  teeth, 
and  is  used  as  an  anchor  to  hold  on  to  fixed  objects. 
Lobsters  are  so  quarrelsome  that  fishermen,  before  sending 
them  to  market,  often  fasten  their  claws  open  with  plugs 


96      ANIMAL    LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

to  prevent  their  fighting  and  injuring  each  other.  Like 
some  other  animals  we  have  studied,  lobsters  can  throw 
off  their  own  legs  and  claws  when  wounded  or  alarmed. 
New  ones  grow  in  their  places,  but  we  often  see  lobsters 
with  limbs  that  do  not  match  each  other  in  size. 

4.  The  Swimmerets. — Lobsters  are  great  swimmers,  and 
they  are  well  suited   to  this  favorite  sport.     The  large 
abdomen  consists  of  six  segments,  each  bearing  a  pair  of 
paddles  called  "  swimmerets,"  while  the  body  ends  in  a 
broad  fin  or  "telson."     Each  appendage  is  attached  to  a 
segment  of  its  own,  and  it  is  thought  by  some  naturalists 
that  the  jaw-feet,  antenna?,  and  eye-stalks  are  all  modified 
limbs  attached  to  their  appropriate  segments. 

5.  How  Animals  are  Fitted  to  the  Life  they  Lead. — It  is 
interesting  to  notice  how  well  every  animal  is  fitted  to  the 
life  it  leads.     The  lobster  by  striking  its  powerful  tail 
upon  the  water  takes  a  long  spring,  and  in  this  way  the 
abdomen  is  a  great  assistance  in  swimming.     The  claws 
are  also  constantly  used  to  catch  the  prey  and  to  defend 
the  animal,  hence  both  the  claws  and  the  tail  are  large  and 
muscular.     These  two  organs  we  know  contain  the  chief 
eatable  part  of  the  lobster.     The  crab,  on  the  other  hand, 
living  upon  the  sandy  bottom  of  the  ocean,  and  among  the 
rocks  on  the  shore,  is  accustomed  to  walking  or  running, 
and  as  the  abdomen   is  not  needed  for  swimming  pur- 
poses, it  seems  to  have  dwindled  away  to  a  mere  apology 
for  a  tail,  which  is  snugly  tucked  up  beneath  the  cephalo- 
thorax.     This  same  thing  happens  everywhere  in  nature. 
An  organ  that  is  no  longer  needed  or  used,  shrivels  in 
size  and  sometimes  wholly  disappears. 

6.  Internal  Organs. — We  must  next  know  something  of 
the  internal  organs  of  the  lobster.     A  short  oesophagus  or 
gullet  leads  from  the  mouth  to  the  stomach.    The  stomach 


LOBSTERS. 


97 


is  very  large,  and  contains  curious  pieces  of  cartilage  to 
which  strong  grinding  teeth  are  attached  for  crushing 
the  food.  These  teeth  are  often  called  the  "lady  in  the 
lobster."  The  large  liver  is  of  a  dark-green  color,  and 
the  heart  consists  of  a  single  contractile  sac,  just  back  of 
the  head. 


Fig.  56. — LOBSTER  (HOMARUS  VCLGARIS). 

7.  The  Lobster  outgrows  its  Shell. — The  legs,  antennae, 
and  even  the  eye-stalks  of  lobsters  are  incased  in  a  hard 
shell,  which,  like  the  crab's  shell,  never  increases  in  size ; 
consequently,  as  the  animal  grows  larger,  its  shell  becomes 
too  small.  At  such  times  the  lobster  loses  its  appetite,  and 
hiding  in  some  secluded  corner,  grows  weak  and  thin.  In 
this  way  the  body  shrinks  from  the  shell.  The  shell  then 
splits  open,  and  after  a  good  deal  of  screwing  and  twist- 
ing, the  seft,  tender  body  creeps  from  its  outgrown  case, 
drawing  out  with  it  legs,  claws,  eye-stalks,  and  all. 

3.  Forms  a  New  Shell. — How  weak  and  defenceless  the 


98      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON  THE   LAND. 

poor  creature  must  feel  with  no  coat  of  mail!  It  seems 
aware  of  the  danger  of  being  eaten  by  its  hungry  neigh- 
bors, so  it  remains  out  of  sight.  The  lobster  now  fills  its 
body  with  water  and  swells  out  as  much  as  possible,  and 
the  soft  skin,  which  is  covered  with  a  sort  of  glue,  hardens 
to  form  a  new  shell,  fitting  tightly  over  every  part  just  as 
the  skin  did. 

9.  Color. — The  natural  color  of  lobsters  is  a  greenish- 
black,  but  it  changes  to  a  bright  red  in  boiling.      The 
females  are  sometimes  found  with  large  masses  of  eggs 
fastened  to  the  swimmerets.     The  young  ones  are  hatched 
with  the  same  form  as  their  parents,  and  they  do  not  pass 
through  the  changes  we  noticed  in  young  crabs. 

10.  Manner  of  catching  Lobsters. — Lobsters  choose  the 
deep,  clear  water  along  rocky  coasts  for  their  dwelling- 
place,  and  on  account  of  the  delicacy  of  their  flavor,  they 
are  caught  in  large  numbers  for  food.     A  common  way 
of  catching  them  is  by  the  use  of  "  lobster  pots."     These 
are  wooden  cages  with  a  funnel-shaped  hole  in  the  top, 
through  which  the  lobsters  can  easily  enter,  but  cannot 
so  easily  get  out  again.     The  pots  are  sunk  in  the  water 
and  marked  by  buoys.     Great  quantities  of  lobsters  are 
caught  on  the  coasts  of  the  British  Isles,  and  are  often 
kept  in  perforated  chests  floating  on  the  water  until  they 
are  sent  to  market. 


BARNACLES. 


XVI. 

BARNACLES. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  ARTHROPODA  :    CLASS,   CRUSTACEA. 

1.  Barnacles  form  a  Coating  on  Rocks. — Boys  and  girls 
who  have  been  to  rocky  sea-coasts  may  have  noticed  a 
dull  white  coating  upon  the  rocks  after  the  tide  has  gone 
down.    If  they  have  given  the  subject  much  thought,  they 
have  probably  discovered  that  on  the  cliffs  this  coating 
forms  a  strip  reaching  only  to  high-water  mark. 

2.  At  first  we  may  think  the  rocks  quite  disfigured,  but 
so  great  is  the  charm  which  living  beings  have  for  us  that 
we    shall    become 

interested  at  once 
upon  learning  that 
this  rusty  covering 
consists  of  acorn- 
barnacles. 

3.  Shells  closed* 
at  Low  Tide. — Any 
rocks  that  stand  be- 
tween high  and  low 
water  mark  may  be 

chosen  as  the  resting-place  of  these  curious  creatures. 
When  the  rock  is  left  high  and  dry  above  the  water  there 
is  nothing  attractive  about  the  barnacles.  Their  shells  are 
tightly  closed  (as  seen  in  Fig.  57),  and  they  appear  per- 


Fig.  57. — A.CORN-BARNACLES. 


100      ANIMAL    LIFE    IX   THE    SEA   AND    ON    THE    LAND. 


fectly  lifeless;  but  watch  them  when  the  tide  comes  in, 
and  they  will  show  signs  of  returning  activity. 

4.  Manner  of  Feeding.  —  With  the  first  welcome  wave 
that  reaches  their  resting-place  you  will  see  the  valves 
within  the  acorn  open,  and  a  delicate  feathery  cluster  of 
arms  will  be  thrown  out  of  each 
barnacle,  as  in  Fig.  58,  and  then  sud- 
denly disappear.  This  movement  is 
repeated  every  few  seconds  with 
great  regularity,  and  makes  a  cur- 
rent in  the  water,  carrying  towards 
the  mouth  small  floating  bodies  on 
which  the  barnacle  feeds. 

5.  The  shell  consists  of  two  parts, 
one  within  another.  The  outer  one 
is  composed  of  several  plates,  open 
at  the  top;  within  it  is  a  conical 
movable  lid,  the  plates  of  which  are 
opened  and  closed  every  time  the 
Fig.  58.— ACORN- BARNA-  arms  are  thrown  out.  In  this  way 

CLE,    WITH     ARMS    EX-       ,  i          .c    i          •  1  •£    4.1, 

TENDED  barnacles  nsh  vigorously,  as  11  they 

understood  that  two  tides  mean  but 

two  meals  during  the  day,  and  consequently  they  must 
make  the  best  use  of  them. 

6.  This  fishing  is  a  graceful  operation,  and  if  you  should 
find  a  large  rock  covered  with  barnacles,  and  bathed  with 
clear  sea-water,  you  will  soon  be  fascinated  with  watching 
their  motions.    As  the  valves  at  the  top  of  each  cone  open, 
twelve  pairs  of  light,  feathery  arms  are  thrown  out  and 
drawn  in  again  with  unvarying  precision. 

7.  Young  Barnacles  more  highly  developed  than  Full- 
grown  Ones.  —  Young  barnacles,  when   first   hatched,  are 
active,  restless    creatures,  swimming    about    like    young 


BARNACLES.  101 

crabs,  but  as  they  grow  older  they  attach  themselves  to 
rocks,  shells,  drift-wood,  sea-weed,  sponges,  turtles,  or  even 
to  jelly-fishes.  The  head  is  firmly  glued  to  these  objects 
by  a  cement  which  the  animal  secretes.  The  rest  of  the 
body  is  free,  and  can  be  extended  be- 
yond the  shell.  Fig.  59  shows  the  body 
of  a  barnacle  as  it  looks  within  the  shell. 

8.  While  young,  and  frolicking  about 
in  the  water,  barnacles   have  two  well- 
developed  eyes,  but  these  dwindle  away 
when  the  animal  settles  for  life,  and  they 
finally  disappear  altogether.     The  shelly 
covering  now  grows,  and  henceforth  bar- 
nacles are  quiet,  orderly  individuals,  nev- 
er moving  from  the  spot  which  they  have 

/  lig.  59.  —  BODY  OF 

chosen  as  a  resting-place  unless  this  hap-     GOOSE-BARNACLE. 

pens  to  be  upon  a  living  animal  or  some 
floating  object.  So  you  see  barnacles  are  really  more 
highly  developed  in  youth  than  they  are  later  in  life.  Be- 
fore growing  into  perfect  barnacles  they  have  parted  with 
their  sight,  and  with  the  power  of  moving  or  swimming 
from  one  place  to  another. 

9.  Clinging  to  Vessels. — Barnacles  are  found  in  all  seas. 
They  sometimes  settle  so  thickly  on  the  huge  Greenland 
whale  as  to  hide  .the  color  of  its  skin.     They  are  also 
found  clinging  to  the  hulls  of  vessels  in  such  large  masses 
that  the  movement  of  the  vessels  through  the  water  is  re- 
tarded.    These  barnacles  grow  rapidly,  and  ships  which 
start  upon  their  voyages  freshly  painted  have  sometimes 
been  obliged  to  put  into  port  in  order  to  have  the  bar- 
nacles scraped  from  the  hull. 

10.  Goose-barnacles. — The  goose-barnacle  (Fig.  60)  dif- 
fers from  the  acorn-barnacle  in  hanging  from  a  long  mus- 


102      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN    THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

cular  stalk.  The  shell  opens  at  the  side,  but  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  animal  is  the  same  as  in  the  acorn-barnacle. 
It  also  has  twelve  pairs  of  jointed  and  ciliated  limbs, 
which  it  throws  out  at  regular  intervals. 

11.  In  former  times  these  same  goose -barnacles  were 
thought  to  change 
into  birds.     There 
is  a  certain  goose 
frequenting    the 
western   coasts    of 
the    British    Isles, 
called  the  barnacle- 
goose,  which  was  thought,  even 
by  learned  men,  to  have  sprung 
from  the  barnacle.     The  follow- 
ing  quaint   description  of  the 
transformation  was  written  in 
the  sixteenth  century:  "When  the  shell 
gapeth  open  "  we  see  "  the  legs  of  the  bird 
hanging  out,"  then  the  bird,  increasing  in 
size,  "  hangeth  only  by  the  bill,"  and  "in   F    60>_GoosE. 
short  space  after  it  cometh  to  full  matu-         BARNACLES. 
rity   and    falleth    into   the   sea,  where   it 
gathereth  feathers,  and  groweth  to  a  fowl  bigger  than  a 
mallard,  and  lesser  than  a  goose."     People  believed  that 
this  change  was  actually  going  on  before  them,  and  there 
was  some  difficulty  in  proving  it  to  be  only  a  fable. 


SPIDERS. 


103 


XVII. 
SPIDERS. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  ARTHROPODA  :    CLASS,  ARACHNIDA. 

1.  Spiders. — Although  spiders  are  shunned  and  despised, 
they  are  mostly  harmless  creatures,  quietly  pursuing  their 
work  of  destroying  insects.     They  have  a  singular  fancy 
for  resting  with  their  heads  downward,  and  instead  of  liv- 
ing in  pairs,  they  prefer  to  live  alone.     The  females  are 
usually  larger  than  the  males,  and  they   show  no  good 
feeling  towards  their  mates,  eating  them  if  they  have  an 
opportunity.     In  some  cases,  however,  they  live  peacea- 
bly together  for  a  time. 

2.  Examination  of  a  Spider,— The  two  divisions  of  the 
spider's  body  are  easily  seen.     The  cephalo-thorax  has  a 
horny  covering,  but  the  abdomen  is  soft.     It  is  entirely 
without  limbs,  and  is 

united  to  the  cephalo- 
thorax  by  a  short  stalk. 
Spiders  have  four  pairs 
of  legs,  ending  in  hooks, 
which  may  be  seen  in 
Fig.  61.  Near  the 
mouth  are  hooked  man- 
dibles, which  contain  a  slit  for  throwing  out  a  poisonous 
fluid  to  kill  their  prey.  They  have  from  six  to  eight 
eyes,  which  are  grouped  together  on  the  top  of  the  head. 


Fig.  61. — FOOT  OF  SPIDER,  MAGNIFIED. 


104      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


Fig.  62. — GEOMETRIC  WEB   OF  GARDEN- 
SPIDER. 


The  more  highly  developed  spi- 
ders  have   a  heart  and  blood- 
vessels.    They  breathe  by  air-sacs  and 
tubes,  which  open  on  the  under  surface 
of  the  abdomen.      The  nervous  ganglia  of 
the  head  and  thorax  are  united  into  a  mass 
slightly  resembling  a  brain. 
3.  Spinning  Silk. — Spiders  are  provided  with 


SPIDERS.  105 

a  curious  set  of  machinery  for  spinning  their  webs.    At  the 
end  of  the  abdomen  are  three  pairs  of  "  spinnerets,"  the 
last  pair  often  extending  behind  the  body  like  two  prongs 
(Fig.  63).     On  examining  these  spinnerets 
we  shall  find  them  covered  with  tiny  points  • 
from  each  of  these  flows  a  stream  of  gum- 
my fluid,  which  hardens  into  silk  when  it 
reaches  the  air.      The  movable  spinnerets 
are  under  the  control   of  the   spider,  and 
when  they  are  held  close  together  the  fine    *1JS-  68-  —  ^PIN- 

.  .  NERETSOFSPI- 

streams  issuing  from  them  unite  into  one       DER. 
thread  before  hardening,  but  if  the  spinner- 
ets are  held  apart  the  threads  harden  separately.      By 
pressing  the  spinnerets  against  any  object  the  fluid  silk  is 
forced  out  of  the  tubes  and  adheres  to  its  surface,  conse- 
quently it  is  drawn  out  when  the  spinnerets  are  lifted. 
The  hind-legs  are  also  used  in  helping  to  draw  the  delicate 
stream  of  silk,  and  guiding  it  to  form  various  designs. 

4.  In  this  way  a  spider's  web  which  we  can  barely  see 
may  be  composed  of  more  than  a  thousand  threads.    Like 
a  piece  of  ordinary  rope,  it  is  stronger  for  being  made 
up  of  small  cords,  but  notwithstanding  this  the  silk  is  too 
delicate  to  be  of  service  to  man,  and  all  attempts  to  weave 
it  into  cloth  have  failed. 

5.  Uses  of  the  Web. — Some  spiders  use  their  webs  as  traps 
to  catch  their  prey,  and  those  that  live  in  holes  or  under- 
neath stones  generally  line  their  hiding-places  with  web. 
Nearly  all  spiders  enclose  their  eggs  in  a  silken  cocoon, 
which,  in  some  species,  the  mother  carries  on  her  back. 
The  young  spiders  remain  in  the  web  until  they  have  grown 
to  a  considerable  size,  when  the  mother  sometimes  tears 
open  the  web,  and  the  baby  spiders  may  be  seen  swarm- 
ing over  her,  as  in  Fig.  64.     When  the  time  arrives  to 


106      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

wean  them  from  her  back  the  mother  shakes  or  kicks 
them  off  with  her  feet,  and  they  scamper  away  to  begin 
life  by  themselves.  Two  thousand  young  spiders  have 
been  found  in  one  cocoon. 


Fig.  64. — FEMALE  SPIDER  WITH  YOUNG  ONES. 

6.  Feeding  the  Little  Ones, — When  feeding  her  babies, 
the  mother  holds  a  nice  plump  fly,  or  some  such  dainty 
morsel,  while  the  little   ones  gather  round  and  suck  its 
juices.     When  their  hunger  is  satisfied  they  run  off,  and 
a  new  set  comes  to  the  feast.    The  mother  often  kills  some 
of  her  own  little  ones  to  feed  the  remaining  spiders  of  her 
numerous  brood. 

7.  Cobwebs. — What  could  be  more  charming  than  the 
filmy  cobwebs  that  ornament  the  country  road-sides,  the 
fences,  and  the  bushes  in  the  early  mornings  of  summer, 
every  thread  bearing  a  precious  load  of  dew-drops  ?     Al- 
though the  webs  remain  through  the  day,  they  please  us 
most  when  sparkling  with  dew.     Those  flat  webs  that  are 
so  familiar  to  us  all  slope  down  into  a  cunning  little  tube 
which  leads  off  among  the  grass.     If  you  look  closely  you 
will  find  the  spider  hiding  just  inside  this  tube,  and  watch- 


SPIDERS.  107 

ing  intently  for  some  insect  to  alight  on  its  snare.  When 
this  happy  event  occurs,  the  spider  runs  out,  and  seizing 
its  prey,  carries  it  into  the  tube,  where  it  sucks  the  juices 
of  its  victim  and  casts  away  the  dead  body. 

8.  Garden-spider. — Our  common  black  and  yellow  gar- 
den-spider weaves  a  wheel-shaped  web  like  that  which  is 
shown  in  the  picture  on  page  104.     This  web  is  really  a 
work  of  art.     First,  the  framework  for  the  wheel  is  made 
by  a  number  of  threads  crossing  each  other  at  one  point, 
and  firmly  attached  at  both  ends  to  surrounding  objects. 
These  threads  are  like  the  spokes  of  a  wheel,  and  upon 
them  the  spider  fastens   a  spiral   thread,  making  circle 
after  circle. 

9.  The  spider  then  stations  itself,  head  downward,  at  the 
centre  of  the  web,  from  which  point  it  can  feel  the  slightest 
motion  made  by  an  insect  alighting  upon  it,  and  can  quick- 
ly reach  the  spot,  to  secure  its  victim  by  additional  threads. 
This  garden  -  spider  places  her  eggs  in  a  pear-shaped  co- 
coon, which  you  will  see  represented  in  the  picture. 

10.  Gossamer-spiders. — Some  small  spiders  have  a  fan- 
tastic habit  of  weaving  balloons  for  themselves  and  sail- 
ing through  the  air.     They  pass  by  the  general  name  of 
"  gossamer-spiders."    Placing  themselves  in  some  high  po- 
sition, such  as  the  tops  of  fences,  with  their  heads  towards 
the  wind,  and  their  spinnerets  open,  they  allow  a  stream 
of  fluid  silk  to  be  blown  out  by  the  current.     The  spider 
then  makes  a  spring,  and,  grasping  the  thread  with  its 
feet,  is  carried  by  the  wind  for  long  distances,  completely 
surrounded  by  a  mass  of  its  own  web.     These  little  fairy 
balloons  may  be  seen  floating  through  the  air  almost  any 
fine  day  in  the  autumn. 

11.  Water-spider.  —  Besides  those  that  mount  into  the 
air,  there  are  some  spiders  that  live  in  the  water.     The 


108      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN    THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 


1 


curious  water-spi- 
der makes  a  bell-shaped 
cocoon  of  silk  under  the 
water,  and  fastens   it  to   the 
leaves   and   twigs   of   growing 
plants.      As  the   spider   is    an 
air-breathing  animal,  its  young 
ones   must   have    a   supply   of 
air,  and  the  patient  mother  dis- 
y     plays  the  greatest  ingenuity  in 
obtaining  it.     She  floats  upon  the 
surface  of  the  water  until  in  some 
way  a  bubble  of  air  forms   upon 
her  abdomen;  this  she  holds  either 
by  her  hind-legs  or  by  the  long  hairs 
on  her  body,  and  sinking  rapidly  un- 
derneath her  cocoon,  lets  go  of  the 
bubble,  which  of  course  rises  into  the 
little  bell.     In  this  way  bubble  after 
bubble  is  stored  away  until  the  bell 
is  filled  with  air. 
12.  Tarantula. — The  tarantula,  or  trap-door  spider,  lives 
in  warm  countries,  and  digs  for  its  nest  a  hole  in  the 
ground  two  inches  or  more  in  depth.     The  hole  is  neatly 


Fig.  65.— NEST  OF  TA- 
RANTULA. 


SPIDERS.  109 

lined  with  real  raw  silk,  and  tightly  covered  with  a  most 
ingenious  lid.  How  do  you  suppose  the  spider  manages 
to  make  this  circular  lid  of  the  exact  size,  and  then  fasten 
it  on  with  a  silken  hinge?  The  top  of  the  nest  is  first 
covered  with  a  web  of  the  proper  shape,  on  which  is 
placed  a  small  quantity  of  earth;  over  this  is  spread  an- 
other web,  then  more  clay,  so  that  the  lid  is  composed  of 
layer  after  layer  of  web  and  fine  clay,  which  harden  into 
a  thin,  stiff  mass.  The  webs  on  one  side  are  attached  to 
the  edge  of  the  nest  to  form  the  hinge. 

13.  If  the  lid  is  closed  it  looks  so  exactly  like  the  sur- 
rounding soil  that  these  nests  are  not  easily  found.  The 
concealment  is  completed  by  a  cunning  habit  of  cover- 
ing the  door  with  moss,  or  some  substance  similar  to  that 
which  grows  around  it.  When  in  its  nest  the  spider  holds 
on  to  the  door  so  tightly  by  its  mandibles  and  fore-feet 
that  the  lid  cannot  be  raised  from  the  outside. 


110      ANIMAL    LIFE    IN   THE   SEA    AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


XVIII. 

INSECTS. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  ARTHROPODA  :   CLASS,  INSECTA. 

1.  Largest  Class  in  the  Animal  Kingdom. — Insects  them- 
selves are  mostly  small,  but  the  class  to  which  they  belong 

is  the  largest  class 
in  the  animal  king- 
dom, and  contains 
more  than  two 
hundred  thousand 
species. 

2.  Found  in  ev- 
ery Part  of  the 
World.— These  lit- 
tle creatures  are 
found  in  all  the 
countries  and  oce- 
anic islands  that 
man  has  reached; 
they  inhabit  hot 
springs  as  well 
as  the  coldest 
streams.  Hum- 
boldt  found  them 
on  the  Andes  far 


Fig.  66. — DIAGRAM  OF  AN  INSECT. 

A,  the  head;  B,  C,  D,  segments  of  the  thorax;  E,  ab- 
domen ;  F,  ovipositor. 


above  the  line  of  perpetual  snow,  and  Darwin,  on  the  early 
voyage  of  the  JSeagle,  found  a  dragon-fly  two  hundred  and 
fifty  miles  from  land. 


INSECTS.  Ill 

3.  Body  made  up  of  Segments  with  no  Skeleton.— Insects 
have  no  internal  skeleton,  but  they  are  covered  with  a 
horny  skin.     The  head,  thorax,  and  abdomen  are  entirely 
distinct,  and  each  part  is  mostly  divided  into  segments 
such  as  are  represented  in  the  diagram  (Fig.  66). 

4.  Compound  Eyes. — Conspicuous  upon  the  sides  of  the 
head  are  the  large  round  eyes,  which,  examined  through 
a  microscope,  will  be  found  covered  with  numerous  flat 
surfaces  or  lenses  (Fig.  67).      These 

are  called  compound  eyes,  for  they 
consist  of  a  great  number  of  eyes 
crowded  into  one  mass  ;  and  they  have 
the  power  of  looking  in  many  direc- 
tions at  the  same  time.  In  addition 
to  their  compound  eyes,  most  insects 

have  three  simple  eyes  placed  between 

mu  J  ,     ,  Fig.  67.  — HEAD  OP   A 

them.      The  antennae,  or  feelers,  are       %EK,   SHOWING    COM- 

also   interesting,  and   you  will"  find        POUND  EYES,  SIMPLE 
.       ,    .  EYES,  AND  ANTENNAE. 

great  variety  in  their  shapes. 

5.  Limbs  of  Insects. — To  the  thorax  are  attached  three 
pairs  of  legs,  and  mostly  two  pairs  of  wings.    These  wings 
are  thin  and  delicate,  and  are  very  large  in  proportion  to 
the  body.     They  are  supported  by  a  net-work  of  hollow 
tubes  which  enclose  air-pipes  and  blood-vessels  side  by 
side. 

6.  The  abdomen  has  no  limbs,  and  it  often  ends  in  a 
piercer  or  sting,  which  is  called  the  "  ovipositor."     You 
may  have  noticed  in  larger  insects  a  curious  sliding  in  and 
out  of  the  segments  of  the  abdomen.     This  bellows-like 
action  helps  to  change  the  air  in  the  air-tubes. 

7.  Organs  of  Digestion  and  Circulation. — The  oesophagus 
leads  into  a  crop  from  which  the  food  enters  the  gizzard, 
where  it  is  crushed  and  passed  on  to  the  true  stomach 


112     ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE  SEA   AND  ON  THE   LAND. 


(Fig.  68).  Insects  have  no  distinct 
heart,  and  the  blood  is  propelled  by 
the  contraction  of  eight  sacs,  which  al- 
low it  to  flow  only  towards  the  head. 
The  blood  is  colorless,  and  fills  the 
irregular  spaces  left  between  the  or- 
gans. 

8.  Breathing  Apparatus.  —  Insects 
breathe  by  tracheae,  which  are  air- 
tubes  passing  through  every  .part  of 
the  body.  Being  filled  with  air,  the 
tracheae  supply  the  blood  abundantly 
with  oxygen,  and  at  the  same  time  di- 
minish the  weight  of  the  body.  These 

Fig.  68.— ALIMENTARY     tubes  are  composed  of  elastic  threads 
CANAL  OF  A  BEETLE.  •,  •,  ,      /-r,. 

wound    in    a    close    spiral    (bis:.  69), 

o,  oesophagus  ;  c,  crop ; 

d,  gizzard;  e,  stom-     giving  them  great  strength  and  light- 

ach ;  g,  intestine. 

ness,  and  preventing  the  possibility  of 
their  being  pressed  together  and  closed.  The  tracheae 
open  on  the  surface  of  the  body  in  small  holes,  called 
"stigmata,"  which  are  arranged  on  the  sides  of  the  thorax 
and  abdomen,  and  are  so  contrived  as  to 
admit  air. freely,  while  they  exclude  water 
or  dust.  A  drop  of  oil  on  the  abdomen 
of  an  insect  will  kill  it  by  closing  the 
stigmata  and  causing  suffocation. 

9.  Insects  have  no  Voices. — No  insect  is 
known  to  have  a  voice.     The  various  noises 
of  insects,  so  commonly  heard,  are  caused 

by  the  rapid  vibration  of  their  wings,  or    Fio.  6Q  _T~R'A_ 
by  rubbing  together  some  hard  parts   of 
their  bodies. 

10.  Metamorphosis. — Most  young  insects 


CHE^E  OF  AN  IN- 
SKCT,  SHOWING 
ELASTIC  SPIRAL 
THREAD. 


INSECTS.  113 

are  very  different  from  their  parents,  and  before  reaching 
their  perfect  state  they  pass  through  a  succession  of 
changes  called  "metamorphosis."  As  butterflies  are  fa- 
miliar insects,  let  us  take  them  for  an  example,  and  study 
the  changes  through  which  they  pass. 


Fig.  70. — BUTTERFLY  IN  THE  LARVA,  PUPA,  AND  IMAGO  STATE. 

11.  The  Larva  of  a  Butterfly.  —  From  the  eggs  of  but- 
terflies  are   hatched  young  caterpillars.     The  caterpillar 
crawls  over  the  plant  upon  which  it  was  born,  eagerly  de- 
vouring the  green  leaves,  as  its  mouth  is  fitted  for  chew- 
ing.    It  grows  rapidly,  and  sheds  its  coat  several  times. 
During  this  period  of  its  existence  it  is  called  a  "  larva." 

12.  The  Pupa  or  Chrysalis  State.  —  At  length  the  larva 
leaves  off  eating,  and  enters  the  "pupa"  or  "chrysalis" 
state.     Wrapped  in  a  dry  skin,  and  hanging  head  down- 
ward suspended  by  a  silken  thread,  it  remains  for  a  time 
apparently  dead.     Shut  up,  however,  in  the  silence  of  this 


114      ANIMAL    LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND    ON   THE    LAND. 


temporary  prison,  a  marvellous  change  is  going  on,  and 
when  the  skin  bursts  a  full-grown  butterfly  appears,  fur- 
nished with  wings  and  arrayed  in  bright  colors.  These 
three  stages  are  represented  in  Fig.  70.  The  attractive 
insect  now  in  no  way  reminds  us  of  the  caterpillar  from 
which  it  sprang. 

13.  The  Imago  or  Perfect  Butterfly,  —  When  the  but- 
terfly first  leaves  the  case  its  wings  are  crumpled  and 
moist,  and  before  attempting  to  fly  it  rests  a  while,  until 

the  wings  stretch 
out  to  their  full  size. 
The  delicate  hues 
of  the  butterflies  are 
due  to  the  small 
feather  -  like  scales 
with  which  they  are 
covered.  The  scales 
overlap  each  other, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  71. 
14.  Great  changes 
have  also  taken  place 
Fig.  71.— SCALES  ON  THE  WING  OP  A  MOTH,  in  the  mouth,  and 

henceforth  a  butter- 
fly sucks  the  sweet  juices  of  flowers  through  a  slender 
tube,  which,  when  not  in  use,  may  be  rolled  up  spirally 
under  the  head.  Our  beautiful  insect  has  now  reached 
the  "  imago  "  or  perfect  state,  and  the  great  aim  of  this 
part  of  its  existence  is  to  choose  a  mate.  In  this  it  makes 
no  mistakes.  The  image  of  its  own  kind  seems  to  be  im- 
pressed upon  its  fancy,  so  that  it  never  mates  with  any 
but  its  own  species.  Insects  know  each  other  when  they 
meet,  just  as  they  know  the  right  flowers  to  feed  upon, 
and  in  the  same  way  the  female  butterfly  selects  the 


INSECTS. 


115 


proper  spot  for  her 
eggs,  generally  plac- 
ing them  on  some 
plant  whose  leaves 
are  suitable  food  f oi- 
lier caterpillar  chil- 
dren. 


Fig.  72. BlTTTKRFLIES. 

15.  Nearly  all  insects  pass 
through   these  three  condi- 
\  tions,  the   larva,  the   pupa, 

and  the  imago,  as  we  have 

before  stated.     Their   larvae   are  known  by   the  various 
names  of  caterpillars,  grubs,  and  maggots.     By  keeping 


116      ANIMAL    LIFE    IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 

a  few  caterpillars  you  may  watch  for  yourselves  all  these 
interesting  changes. 

16.  What  could  possibly  seem  more  aimless  than  the 
joyous,  careless  flitting  of  a  butterfly!     Floating  hither  and 
thither  through  the  bright  sunshine,  and  folding  together 
its  elegant  wings  above  the  choicest  flowers,  its  life  ap- 
pears a  most  luxurious  one;  still  it  has  its  own  part  to 
play. 

17.  Flowers  fertilized  by  Insects. —  It  is  a  well-known 
fact  that  most  bright-colored  flowers  are  dependent  upon 
the  visits  of  insects  (especially  of  bees)  to  perfect  their 
seeds,  and  thus  to  keep  up  a  succession   of   new   plants 
from  one  year  to  another.     The  insects  are  attracted  by 
the  showy  petals,  and  they  enter  the  flowers  to  obtain  the 
honey  which  is  stored  up  in  the  bottom  of  the  tube.     In 
so  doing,  grains  of  pollen  adhere  to  their  heads  and  wings, 
and  are  carried  from  one  flower  to  another.     These  pollen 
grains  lodge  upon  the  moist  surface  of  the  pistils  as  the 
insects  brush  past  them,  and  in  due  time  seeds  are  pro- 
duced. 

18.  Bright-colored  Insects  attracted  by  bright  Flowers. — 
Butterflies  are  great  rovers.     Having  no  homes  of  their 
own,  they  flit  gayly  about  and  visit  the  most  brilliant 
blossoms.      Throughout    nature   we   find   highly    colored 
birds   and  insects  have   the    same   preference   for  bright 
flowers  and  fruits  as  is  shown  by  the  butterflies. 

1 9.  Butterflies  and  Moths  contrasted. — Many  of  our  moths 
resemble  butterflies ;  and  as  both  of  these  insects  change 
from  caterpillars,  it  will   be  well  to  notice    some  of  the 
differences  between  them.     In  the  first  place,  true  butter- 
flies fly  only  in  the  daytime.     Their  antennae  are  long  and 
thread  -  like,  with  knobs  at  the  end.     When  at   rest,  the 
wings  are  generally  folded  together  and  held  erect  above 


INSECTS. 


117 


the  body,  thus  concealing  the  more  brightly  colored  upper 
surfaces, .  and  affording  the  insect  protection  against  its 
enemies.  The  under  side  of  the  wings  often  resembles 
in  color  the  flower  upon  which  the  butterfly  feeds. 


Fig.  73. — MOTH  AND  LARVAE. 


20.  Moths  fly  only  at  night  or  during  twilight.     The 
body  is  generally  stouter  and  more  robust  than  that  of  the 
butterfly.     Their  antennae   are   tapering,  and  sometimes 
beautifully  feathered  (Fig.  73).     They  do  not  fold  their 
wings  in  repose,  and  their   larvae  enclose   themselves  in 
silken  cocoons. 

21.  Silk- worms. — Silk-worms,  the  most  useful  of  these 


118      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

insects,  are  extensively  cultivated  for  the  silk  of  their  co- 
coons. When  the  pupae  are  ready  to  leave  the  cocoon 
they  make  a  hole  through  it  for  their  escape,  which 
breaks  the  thread  of  silk.  To  prevent  this  it  is  custom- 
ary, when  silk -worms  are  raised  for  profit,  to  kill  the 
pupa3  by  submitting  their  cocoons  to  a  great  heat.  The 
cocoons  are  afterwards  soaked  in  warm  water  to  soften  a 
gummy  substance  which  they  contain,  and  the  silk  can 
then  be  wound  off  in  an  unbroken  thread.  The  length  of  a 
thread  of  silk  has  been  estimated  to  be  nine  hundred  feet. 
22.  In  commencing  its  cocoon  the  larva  attaches  the  silk 
to  some  fixed  object,  then  winds  itself  in  its  own  web, 
thickening  the  cocoon  upon  the  inside.  The  moths  of  the 
silk-worm  have  grown  so  helpless  from  confinement  that 
the  female  is  nearly  as  motionless  as  if  she  had  no  wings, 
and  the  male  merely  flutters  around  his  companion  with- 
out leaving  the  ground.  It  has  been  found  that  after 
three  generations  raised  in  the  open  air  they  recover  their 
lost  power  of  flight. 


BEES. 


119 


XIX. 
BEES. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  ARTHROPODA  :    CLASS,  IN8ECTA. 

1.  Transparent  Wings  Hooked. — You  may  have  noticed 
how  thin  and  transparent  the  wings  of  bees  are,  and  that 
they  are  supported  by  delicate  veins.      Look  at  them  now 
with  your  microscopes,  and  you  will  see  small  hooks  on  the 
edge  (Fig.  74),  which  fasten 

together  the  front  and  back 
wing  during  flight,  in  or- 
der that  they  may  move  as 
one  wing. 

2.  The  Sting. — The  sting 
of  the  female  (Fig.  75)  is  a 
remarkable    instrument    at 
the   end   of   the   abdomen. 
It  consists  of  two  darts,  a, 

and  a  sheath,  b,  connected  with  a  poison -gland,  c.  The 
wound  is  first  made  with  the  sheath,  after  which  the  darts 
are  thrust  out  to  deepen  it.  These  darts  have  a  number  of 
pointed  barbs  at  the  end,  d,  and  it  is  difficult  to  remove 
them  from  the  wound,  so  they  sometimes  break  off.  This 
loss  of  the  sting  causes  the  bee  to  die,  though  not  always 
immediately.  The  sting,  or  ovipositor,  varies  in  form  with 
different  kinds  of  bees,  and  it  is  sometimes  used  for  cut- 
ting, boring,  and  sawing  holes  in  which  to  deposit  the  eggs. 
Male  bees  have  no  sting,  and  are  therefore  harmless. 


Fig.  74. — WINGS  OF  A  BEE,  SHOWING 
THE  HOOKS. 


120      ANIMAL    LIFE    IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


Fig.  75.— A  BEK'S  STING. 
d,  dart  magnified. 

tinued  several 
inches  down  the 
trunk,  parallel  to 
the  grain  of  the 
wood.  This  tun- 
nel is  afterwards 
divided  into  cells, 
in  each  of  which  is 
placed  an  egg  with 
a  supply  of  food 
for  the  young  lar- 
va. The  parti- 
tions between  the 
cells  are  made  of 
the  sawdust  which 
has  collected  from 
her  boring,  moist- 
ened with  a  gum- 
my fluid  which  the 
bee  secretes.  She 


3.  Social  Bees  and  Solitary  Bees. — 
Humble  -  bees   and  hive  -  bees  live  in 
large  families,  and  are   called   social 
bees.      There  are   also   solitary  bees 
which  live  entirely  alone. 

4.  The  Carpenter-bee. — The  carpen- 
ter-bee is  an  interesting  example  of 
a  solitary  bee.     She  bores  her  nest  in 
old  wood,  mostly  selecting  the  dead 
limb  of  a  tree,  an  old  post,  or  wooden 
'railing.     One  of  these  nests  is  shown 
in  Fig.  76.    The  bee  bores  a  tube  which 
soon  makes  a  sudden  turn,  and  is  con- 


i^.  76. — XKST  OF  (I.\I{PKNTEH-HKK. 


BEES. 


UNIVERSITY 

&r 


121 


seems  to  know  that  the  egg  first  deposited  at  the  bottom 
of  the  tube  will  hatch  first,  so  she  bores  a  second  opening 
at  that  part  of  the  tunnel,  through  which  the  young  bees 
come  forth  in  succession  at  the  proper  time. 

5.  Humble-bees.  —  Humble-bees,  as  we  have  said,  are 
among  the  social  bees.     They  make  their  nests  in  holes 
in    the    ground    (Fig. 

77),  often  taking  pos- 
session of  a  deserted 
mouse  nest.  All  the 
colony,  except  the  fe- 
males, die  when  win- 
ter comes.  These  fe- 
males remain  in  a  tor- 
pid state,  concealed 
among  moss  or  rotten 
wood,  to  start  new 
colonies  the  following 
spring. 

6.  Hive-bees.— The 
habits  of  hive-bees  are 
exceedingly     curious, 
and  deserve  our  espe- 
cial study.  Every  hive 
contains  a  queen-bee, 
workers,    and    drones 
(Fig.  78). 

7.  The  Workers  Build 
the  Nests.— The  whole 


Fig.  77. — NEST  OF  HUMBLE-BEE. 


labor  of  building  the  nest  and  providing  for  the  large  fam- 
ily falls  upon  the  workers.  They  have  a  softer  material 
to  work  in  than  the  carpenter-bee,  since  their  nest  is  built 
of  wax,  which  is  a  secretion  of  their  bodies,  and  which 


122      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

forms  in  scales  between  the  segments  of  the  abdomen. 
With  their  feet  the  bees  remove  the  wax,  and  work  it  with 


Fig.  78. — HIVE-BEES. 
a,  queen  ;  6,  worker  ;  c,  drone. 

their  mouths  and  mandibles,  mixing  it  with  saliva  until  it 
becomes  soft  and  white. 

8.  It  is  then  placed  upon  the  ceiling  of  the  hive,  and 
the  cells  are  carefully  shaped  and  fitted  to  each  other, 
forming  the  honey-comb  which  is  our  wonder  and  admira- 
tion.   The  manner  in  which  the  six-sided  cells  fit  together 
gives  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  space,  while  it  re- 
quires the  least  material  for  building. 

9.  Gathering  Honey. — In  collecting  honey  for  the  hive 
a  bee  goes  steadily  from  one  blossom  to  another,  visiting 
flowers  of  only  One  kind  on  each  excursion ;  thus  it  does 
not   mix   the   honey  from    different   flowers.      The    long 
tongue,  or  proboscis,  enters  the  tube  of  the  flower  and 
laps  up  the  honey.     The  tube  of  some  flowers  is  too  long 
and  narrow  for  the  bee  to  enter,  so  the  honey  is  sucked 


BEES. 


123 


from  the  cup  on  the 
outside  of  the  flower,  or 
the    tube    is    pierced    by    the 
proboscis. 

10.  Most  of  this  honey  re- 
mains in  the  crop,  or  honey-sac, 
until  the  bee  returns  to  the  hive. 
By    the    contraction    of    certain 
muscles  the  honey  is  forced  back 
again  through  the  mouth,  and  is 
poured  into   the   cell.      As    the 
cells  become  full,  they  are  sealed 
up  tightly  with  wax.     The  hon- 
ey has  undergone  some  change 
while   within    the   body   of   the 
bee,  for  it  is  quite  different  from 
the   pure   juice   taken   from  the 
flowers. 

11.  Pollen  Baskets.— When 
bees  leave  the  flowers  the  hair 
on  their  bodies  and  legs  is  cov- 
ered with  pollen,  which  they 


Fig.  79  --  LITTLE  PLUNDERERS 


124     ANIMAL   LIFE   IN  THE   SEA   AND   ON  THE   LAND. 

brush  back  into  little  pockets  on  their  hind-legs  and  carry 
to  the  hive.  It  is  a  singular  fact  that  the  queen  and  the 
drones  have  no  such  pollen  baskets.  As  they  never  go 
out  to  gather  honey,  they  need  none. 

12.  The  Queen-bee. — Each  hive  has  one  queen,  and  she 
is  the  only  perfectly  developed  female.     She  lays  all  the 
eggs,  which  sometimes  amount  to  two  thousand  in  a  sin- 
gle day.     Different  sized  cells  have  been  prepared  for  the 
three  classes  of  bees,  and  the  queen  deposits  each  egg  in 
its  proper  cell,  gluing  it  slightly  to  the  bottom.     She  first 
lays  eggs  which  are  to  produce  the  workers,  afterwards 
those  which   produce   drones,  the    last   being    placed   in 
larger  cells. 

13.  Duties  of  the  Nurses.  —  In  three  or  four  days  the 
eggs  hatch  into  little  white  grubs,  and  then  the  duties  of 
the  nurses,  or  workers,  begin.     The  nurses  feed  the  larvae 
with  a  mixture  of  pollen  and  honey,  which  they  have  first 
swallowed,  and  which  is  already  partly  digested.      The 
larvae  require  a  great  quantity  of  food,  and  grow  rapidly 
until  they  almost  fill  the  cell.     When  they  refuse  to  eat 
any  longer,  the  nurses  seal  over  the  cells  until  the  young 
bees  are  perfectly  developed. 

14.  The  Perfect  Bee. — Fastened  within  its  cell,  the  larva 
spins  for  itself  a  silken  cocoon,  and  remains  inactive,  eat- 
ing no  food  while  the  wonderful  change  is  taking  place. 
The  care  of  the  nurses  has  ceased,  and  when  the  perfect 
bee  is  ready  to  leave  the  cell  it  struggles  out  alone,  and 
enters  the  busy  throng  outside  with  no  one  to  welcome  it. 
The  workers  soon  take  possession  of  the  empty  cell,  and 
prepare  it  for  future  occupants. 

15.  Treatment  of  a  Young  Queen. — On  the  other  hand, 
the  young  queen  in  her  cell  is  treated  with  the  greatest 
distinction.     The  larva  is  given  richer  food  and  in  larger 


BEES.  125 

quantities  than  the  workers  or  drones  receive.  When  she 
is  ready  to  leave  the  cell,  the  workers  gather  around  and 
gnaw  at  the  top  of  the  cell  until  it  is  so  thin  that  the 
movements  of  the  young  queen  within  may  be  watched. 
A  hole  is  made  in  this  cover  large  enough  for  her  to 
extend  her  proboscis,  and  she  is  fed  in  this  position  for 
several  days,  uttering  the  while  a  peculiar  cry  called 
piping. 

16.  The  queen  seems  to  have  a  hatred  for  those  of  her 
own  sex,  and  she  will- destroy  the  young  queens  that  come 
within  her  reach.     Consequently,  if  the  bees  have  not  yet 
swarmed,  the  workers  do  not  allow  a  young  queen  to  stir 
from  her  cell.     After  the  old  queen  has  left  the  hive  with 
her  swarm,  the  young  queens  are  liberated  at  intervals  of 
a  few  days,  and  they  lose  no  opportunity  to  kill  each  other. 

1 7.  The  Larva  of  a  Worker  may  develop  into  a  Queen. — 
If  by  any  accident  the  hive  is  left  without  a  queen,  the 
bees  are  thrown  into  great  excitement,  but  they  soon  wak- 
en up  to  the  necessity  for  action,  and  they  begin,  as  it 
were,  to  cultivate  a  queen.     They  select  three  adjoining 
worker  cells  which  contain  larvae,  and  cutting  away  the 
partition  walls,  convert  them  into  one  large  cell.     Two 
of  the  larvae  are  destroyed,  and  the  remaining  one,  by 
being  fed  on  royal  food,  and  having  plenty  of  room  and 
other  favorable  conditions,  grows  into  a  queen  instead  of 
a  worker.    This  slight  change  of  treatment  not  only  gives 
her  a  different  form  and  color,  but  it  alters  her  whole  nat- 
ure, and  gives  her  different  instincts. 

18.  So  you  will  see  that  queen-bees  and  workers  come 
from  the  same  kind  of  larvae,  and  that  these  larvae  de- 
velop, according  to  the  circumstances  under  which  they 
are  placed,  either  into  queens  or  into  workers. 

19.  Drones   killed  by  the  Workers.  —  The   drones   are 


126      ANIMAL    LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

males,  and  they  take  no  part  in  the  work  of  the  hive.  In 
the  latter  part  of  summer  the  workers  kill  them  without 
mercy,  as  if  they  were  determined  to  support  them  no 
longer.  They  attack  the  drones,  and  sting  them  between 
the  rings  of  the  abdomen,  afterwards  throwing  them  out 
of  the  hive. 

20.  Swarming. — Bees  usually  swarm,  or  fly  off  in  search 
of  a  new  home,  in  the  spring,  never  leaving  the  hive,  how- 
ever, until  it  is  well  stocked  with  eggs  and  the  weather 
is  warm.     When   about    to   swarm,  the    queen    and   the 
workers  become  very  much  agitated,  hurrying  to  and  fro 
for  several  days  before  they  start.     As  the  time  for  de- 
parture arrives,  several  bees  fly  in  circles  around  the  hive ; 
suddenly  the  noise  and  bustle  are  hushed,  and  they  all 
enter  within.     At  a  given  signal,  those  which  are  to  com- 
pose the  swarm  fly  off  rapidly,  and  select  some  tree  or 
bush  on  which  to  alight.     If  their  queen  is  not  with  them, 
they  soon  discover  the  mistake  and  return  to  the  hive, 
where  they  wait  for  several  days  before  a  second  attempt 
is  made. 

21.  When  the  bees  have  entered  their  new  home,  they 
arrange  themselves  in  a  loop,  or  festoon,  by  hooking  their 
claws  together,  and  in  this  manner  they  hang  from  the 
roof  of  the  hive.    Thus  they  continue  motionless  for  some 
time,  while  a  store  of  wax  is  forming  with  which  to  build 
their  new  comb. 

22.  The  bees  which  remain  in  the  old  hive  after  the 
swarm  has   left   quietly  pursue  their  labors,  and  a  new 
brood   soon   fills  the  vacancies.     The   young  queens,  in 
their  turn,  lead  off  new  swarms,  and  thus  proceeds  the 
busy  life  in  a  beehive.     There  are  sometimes  as  many  as 
fifty  thousand  bees  in  one   hive,  yet  the  work  goes  on 
without  the  slightest  disorder  or  confusion. 


BEES.  127 

23.  Ventilating  the  Hive. — The  workers  keep  the  hive 
perfectly  clean,  and  allow  no  dead  bees  or  other  impurities 
to  remain  within  it.  They  are  also  careful  that  it  shall 
be  well  ventilated.  To  accomplish  this  a  certain  number 
of  bees  continually  fan  their  wings  as  if  flying,  although 
their  feet  are  fastened  to  the  floor.  Some  bees  are  occa- 
sionally stationed  outside  the  hive  to  perform  the  same 
movements,  but  the  greater  number  are  within,  one  set 
relieving  another  after  a  certain  time.  The  rapid  motion 
of  their  wings  causes  a  current  of  fresh  air  to  pass  through 
the  hive ;  it  also  produces  the  humming  sound  which  is 
constantly  heard  from  a  hive  of  bees. 


128      ANIMAL  LIFE   IN   THE  SEA  AND  ON  THE   LAND. 


XX. 
WASPS  AND  MOSQUITOES. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  ARTHROPODA  :    CLASS,  INSECTA. 

I.  Wasps. — Wasps  have  a  general  resemblance  to  bees, 
although  they  may  be  distinguished  by  their  wings, 
which,  when  at  rest,  are  laid  over  the  body ;  also  by  the 
deep  stalk-like  division  between  the  thorax  and  abdomen. 

Wasps  differ  great- 
ly in  their  habits. 
Like  the  bees,  some 
live  alone,  others 
live  in  colonies. 

2.  The  Mud-wasp. 
— Our  common 
mud-wasp  is  among 
the  solitary  ones. 
This  wasp  makes 
its  nest  of  mud, 
fastened  to  the  side 
of  a  wall  or  under 
a  ceiling.  The  nest 
consists  of  long 
Fig.  80.— DIGGER-WASP— COCOON  AND  LARVA.  cells  arranged  hor- 
izontally. In  each 

cell  is  deposited  one  egg  and  a  supply  of  little  spiders 
for  the  young  larva  to  feed  upon  after  it  is  hatched.    The 


WASPS   AND   MOSQUITOES.  129 

spiders  are  not  killed,  but  only  stunned,  and  imprisoned 
alive  when  the  end  of  the  cell  is  fastened  up. 

3.  In  Fig.  81  you  see  a  cell  which  has  not  yet  been 
closed.     The  remaining  cells  were  full  of  little  green  spi- 
ders, still  active,  when  this 

nest  was  found. 

4.  Social  Wasps.  —  Social 
wasps  live  in  large  families, 
which  contain  females,  work- 
ers, and  males.     When  win- 
ter approaches,  all  the  wasps 
die  except  the  females;  these 
creep  into  some  safe  place, 
and  sleep  through  the  cold 

weather    with    their    wings        Fig.  81.— NEST  OF  MUD- WASP. 
and  legs  tightly  folded.     In 

the  spring  they  revive,  and  each  female  starts  a  new  nest 
for  herself. 

5.  Nests  built  of  Paper. — The  nests  of  social  wasps  are 
always  built  of  paper.    Indeed,  wasps  were  the  first  paper- 
makers.     Long  before  man  had  learned  the  various  proc- 
esses required  for  manufacturing  it,  wasps  had  mastered 
the  secret.     Their  paper  is  beautifully  variegated,  and  be- 
ing made  of  the  fibres  of  wood,  it  is  so  durable  as  to  bear 
exposure  to  rains  and  storms.     Gnawing  these  fibres  from 
some  old  fence  or  tree-trunk,  the  wasps  moisten  them  with 
saliva  until  by  the  action  of  their  jaws  a  paste  is  formed 
ready  to  spread  out  in  a  thin  sheet.      In  looking  at  a 
piece  of  this  paper,  the  wavy  stripes  will  show  just  how 
far  each  bundle  of  fibre  went  towards  forming  the  nest. 

6.  Starting  the  Colony. — As  we  have  stated,  there  is  but 
one  wasp  to  do  all  the  work  in  starting  the  home,  so  the 
building  goes  on  slowly  at  first.     By  the  time  three  or 

10 


130      ANIMAL   LIFE    IN   THE   SEA    AND    ON   THE    LAND. 


Fig.  82. — NESTS  OF 
SOCIAL  WASPS. 

four  cells  are  fin- 
ished the  young 
workers  which 
occupied  them 
are  ready  to  help 
the  mother,  who  has  been 
busy  building  the  nest,  de- 
positing eggs,  and  feeding  the  hungry 
larvae.  Other  cells  are  made  and  more 
eggs  deposited,  the  work  going  on 
rapidly.  The  first  wasps  hatched  are 
the  workers;  the  perfect  males  and 
females  do  not  appear  until  nearly  the  end  of 
the  season. 


WASPS    AND    MOSQUITOES.  131 

7.  Some  kinds  of  wasps  make  their  nests  in  holes  in  the 
ground,  others  fasten  them  to  walls  or  to  the  branches  of 
trees.     The   flat  nests   in  Fig.  82   are  built  without  any 
covering  to  the  cells. 

8.  The  Hornet's  Nest. — A  much  more  elaborate  nest  is 
made  by  the  hornet.     The  one  represented  in  Fig.  83  is 


Fig.  83. — HORNKTS'  XKST. 

cut  open  at  one  side  to  show  the  interior.  It  is  formed  of 
tiers  of  cells,  one  above  another,  with  their  mouths  open- 
ing downward  ;  the  tiers  are  attached  to  little  stalks 
which  hang  from  the  top  of  the  nest.  The  whole  is  cov- 


132      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON    THE    LAND. 

ered  with  several  envelopes  of  paper,  and  the  entrance  is 
through  a  circular  opening  in  the  bottom.  When  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  enlarge  the  nest,  new  envelopes  are 
added  on  the  outside,  and  the  inner  covers  are  removed 
to  make  room  for  more  cells.  These  nests  are  found  in 
the  woods,  attached  to  the  branches  of  trees. 

9.  The  Yellow-jacket.  —  The   yellow  -  jacket  is  a  small 
black  wasp  marked  with  bands  and  spots  of  yellow.     Its 
nest  is  much  like  that  of  a  hornet,  but  smaller  and  more 
pointed,  with  the  entrance  on  one  side,  near  the  bottom. 
The   yellow  -  jacket   sometimes   attacks   persons  without 
provocation,  and  its  sting  is  very  severe.  ,  As  a  general 
thing,  wasps  do  not  sting  unless  they  are  irritated,  but 
they  are  zealous  in  guarding  their  nests,  and  become  agi- 
tated upon  any  approach  to  it ;  if  it  is  molested  in  any 
way,  they  rush  upon  the  intruder  without  mercy. 

10.  The  Mosquito. — Now  let  us  glance  at  the  mosquito. 
Its  sting  is  on  the  head,  and  consists  of  several  sharp 
lances  and  sucking  tubes  enclosed   in  a  flexible   sheath. 
After  lancing  the  flesh,  mosquitoes  let  fall  a  drop  of  poi- 
son, which  makes  the  blood  so  thin  that  they  can  readily 
suck  it  through  their  tubes. 

1 1 .  Young  Mosquitoes  in  the  Water.  —  Mosquitoes  lay 
their  eggs   in  water.     Their  larvae  pass  by  the  name  of 
"wigglers,"  and  they  may  be  seen  in  any  stagnant  pool. 
Here   they  remain   during  winter,  when   the   ponds   are 
covered  with  ice,  and  the  mosquitoes  of  last  season  have 
been  killed  off  with  the  cold.     So,  while  we  are  enjoying 
a  rest  from  the  attentions  of  these  little  pests,  another 
generation  is  coming  on  for  next  season. 

12.  The  larvae  move  through  the  water  by  sudden  jerks. 
Their  breathing  organs  are  towards  the  tail,  so  they  swim 
with  the  head  down,  as  may  be  seen  at  E  in  Fig.  84,  but 


w  A  s!>s 


MOSQUITOES. 


133 


after  they  throw  off  the  first  skin  and  enter  the  pupa 
state,  they  breathe  through  the  thorax,  and  keep  the  head 
at  the  surface  of  the  water.  Once  more  the  skin  splits, 
and  they  fly  away  full-grown  mosquitoes.  The  dry  case 
of  the  pupa  forms  a  sort  of  boat,  upon  which  the  insect 
may  rest  and  spread  its  wings  before  taking  flight. 

13.  You  may  see  this  interesting  metamorphosis  going 
on  in  any  pond  in  summer-time.  A  bright  sunny  morning 
brings  thousands  of  these  little  boats  to  the  surface,  and 
you  may  be  so  fortunate  as  to  see  the  occupant  burst  its 
shell  and  fly  off  into  the  sunlight. 


Fig.  84. — DIFFERENT  STAGES  IN  THE  GROWTH  OF  A  MOSQUITO. 

A,  boat  of  eggs  :  B,  eggs  highly  magnified ;  d,  with  lid  open  for  the  escape  of  the 
larva;  C,  D,  pupae;  K,  larva  magnified,  showing  respiratory  tubes  (e),  anal  fins 
(/),  antennae  (g) ;  P,  imago. 

14.  The  Eggs. — The  eggs  of  mosquitoes  are  cemented 
together  side  by  side,  and  protected  by  some  water-proof 
covering  which  enables  them  to  float  securely  upon  the 


134      ANIMAL    LIFE   IN   THE   SEA    AND   ON   THE    LAND. 

water,  like  miniature  life -boats,  which  they  really  are. 
Each  egg,  moreover,  contains  a  tiny  air-bubble,  and  if  the 
little  life-boat  should  happen  to  be  plunged  beneath  the 
surface,  it  rises  quickly,  and  always  with  the  right  side 
up.  These  rafts  of  eggs  are  shown  nicely  at  A,  in  Fig.  '84. 
At  B  you  will  see  the  eggs  magnified,  with  a  curious  lid 
at  d,  for  the  escape  of  the  larva. 

15.  House-flies. — Our  common  house-flies  live  with  us 
on  intimate  terms,  and  take  great  liberties  in  our  homes; 
still,  the  early  part  of  their  lives  is  concealed  from  us,  and 
we  scarcely  think  about  how  they  come  or  where  they  go. 

16.  Most  flies  perish  when  cold  weather  comes,  but  a 
few  of  the  strong,  healthy  females  creep  into  some  crevice 
or  corner,  where  they  lie  in  a  torpid  state  until  the  next 
summer.     Here  the  eggs  are  deposited  from  which  a  new 
generation  springs.     In  hot  climates,  and  in  rooms  which 
are  kept  constantly  warm,  flies  remain  active  all  the  year. 


ANTS.  135 


XXI. 

ANTS. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  ARTHROPODA  :    CLASS,  INSECTA. 

1.  Remarkable  Instinct  of  Ants. — Ants  are  considered 
the  most  highly  developed  of  all  insects.     Indeed,  none 
of  the  lower  animals  possess  such  remarkable  instincts 
as  the  ants.     They  show  great  wisdom  and  ingenuity  in 
building  their  nests  and  in  reaching  any  desired  point. 
They  make  roads  for  themselves  by  carefully  removing 
any  obstacle  in  their  way.     They  also  dig  tunnels  of  con- 
siderable length,  sometimes  resorting  to  this  method  for 
crossing  broad  rivers.     They  protect  their  nests,  fight  bat- 
tles, gather  food,  tend  their  young,  take  care  of  domestic 
animals,  and  possess  slaves.      Their  industry  is  not  ex- 
celled by  the  bees  and  wasps.     They  work  all  day,  and, 
when  there  is  necessity,  even  at  night. 

2.  Their  one  Flight  into  the  Air. — Ants  live  in  families, 
consisting  of  males,  females,  and  workers.     At  first  the 
young  males  and  females  are  furnished  with  wings,  and 
they  fly  from  the  nest  to  select  their  mates.     Immediate- 
ly after  this  first  and  only  flight  the  males  die,  and  the 
females  strip  off  their  wings,  and  do  not  leave  the  nest 
again. 

3.  Labor  of  the  Workers. — The  workers  are  much  more 
numerous  than  the  other  classes;  some  of  them  serve  as 
soldiers,  others,  which    are    generally    smaller,   serve    as 


136      ANIMAL    LIFE    IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

nurses.  All  the  labor  of  the  colony  falls  upon  the  work- 
ers, and  they  attend  to  their  various  duties  in  the  most 
orderly  manner. 

4.  Ants'  Nests. — Ants  do  not  all  build  their  nests  in 
the  same  way.  Some  species  heap  up  a  mass  of  small 
sticks  and  pine  leaves;  some  bore  into  the  trunks  of  old 


Fig.  85. — ANT  NEST,  WITH  UNDERGROUND  PASSAGES. 

trees ;  but  most  ants  make  holes  in  the  ground,  with  a 
little  mound  of  earth  around  the  entrance,  which  we  call 
an  ant-hill.  These  nests  are  carefully  contrived,  with 
passages  and  avenues  leading  to  many  chambers,  as  you 
will  see  in  Fig.  85.  The  entrances  are  closed  every  night, 
and  opened  in  the  morning.  If  it  rains  during  the  day 
they  remain  closed,  and  the  ants  are  confined  within  the 
nest. 


ANTS. 


137 


5.  Nurses'  Care  of  the  Eggs  and  Grubs. — The  eggs,  which 
are  scarcely  large  enough  to  be  visible,  are  not  deposited 
in  any  especial  place  by  the  females,  but  are  immediately 
taken  possession  of  by  the  nurses,  who  carry  them  to  some 
favorable  place,  and  who  are  henceforth  devoted  in  their 
attentions  to  them,  constantly  licking  and  cleaning  them, 
and  frequently  changing  their  position. 

6.  From  the  eggs  are  hatched  little  white  grubs,  which 
are  entirely  dependent  upon  their  nurses  for  food.    Every 
morning  they  are  carried  into  the  sunshine,  or  at  least  to 
the  upper  chambers  that  have  been  warmed  by  the  sun, 
and  towards  evening  they  are  again  taken  back  to  the 
bottom  of  the  nest,  where  there  is  no  chilliness.     Imagine 
the  labor  —  each  one  of  those  thousands  of  larvae  car- 
ried separately  in  the  mouth  of  a  faithful  nurse  !     If  a 
shower  comes  on,  or  if  the  young  family  is  threatened 
with  danger,  they  are  quickly  taken  to  some  safe  place. 

7.  When  ready  to  enter  the  pupa  state,  the  larvse  cover 
themselves  with 

a  sort  of  web 
(Fig.  86),  and  are 
still  carried  back 
and  forth  by  the 
nurses,  who  con- 
tinually clean 
them.  Sir  John 
Lubbock,  in  his 
recent  work  on  ants,  states  that  when  the  pupae  are  ready 
to  leave  tjieir  cases  the  nurses  help  them  to  escape.  "  It 
is  very  pretty,"  he  says,  "  to  see  the  older  ants  helping 
them  to  extricate  themselves,  carefully  unfolding  their 
legs  and  smoothing  out  the  wings  with  truly  feminine 
tenderness  and  delicacy." 


Fig.  86. — LARVA,  COCOON,  AND  PGVJE  or  RED  ANT 
(MAGNIFIED). 


138      ANIMAL   LIFE    IN   THE   SEA   AND    ON   THE   LAND. 


8.  Cleanliness. — Ants  not  only  keep  their  homes  neat, 
but  they  are  careful  of  their  own  personal  cleanliness. 
Their  little  feet  are  covered  with  hairs,  which  form  good 
brushes,  and  no  particles  of  dust  are  allowed  to  remain 

on  their  bodies. 
They  may  often 
be  seen  rubbing 
their  feet  togeth- 
er to  clean  them, 
as  flies  do.  The 
antennas  of  ants 
(Fig.  87)  are  bent 
like  an  elbow,  and 
with  them  the  act- 
ive little  creatures 
examine  every  ob- 
ject they  meet. 

9.  Recognizing 
Members  of  their 
own  Family. — If 
we  notice  ants  in 
their  travels,  we 
shall  see  two  dis- 
tinct lines,  one 
moving  towards 
the  nest,  the  other 
leaving  it.  Those 
that  are  returning 

without  a  load  stop,  and,  with  their  antennae,  salute  their 
sisters  carrying  burdens,  and  this  they  do  so  quickly  as 
not  to  break  or  interrupt  the  line. 

10.  In  one  nest  there  may,  perhaps,  be  four  hundred 
thousand  ants.  Notwithstanding  these  immense  numbers, 


Fig.  87. — SLAVE-MAKING  ANT 
(MAGNIFIED). 


ANTS.  139 

a  stranger  upon  entering  the  nest  is  immediately  attacked, 
which  fact  shows  that  the  ants  in  the  community  have 
some  power  of  recognizing  each  other.  They  even  know 
members  of  their  own  family  after  a  long  absence,  and 
welcome  them  back  to  their  old  home. 

11.  If  an  ant  has  discovered  a  good  feeding-ground,  it 
seems  to  spread  the  news  to  its  fellows,  and  often  returns 
with  a  troop  of  them  to  share  the  feast. 

12.  Favorite  Places  for  their  Nests. — You  have  probably 
noticed  the  little  ants  that  burrow  under  the  pavements 
in  our  streets  and  door-yards,  and  have  wondered  why 
they  choose  situations  so  exposed  that  many  of  them  are 
trodden  underfoot,  while  their  little  hillocks  of  earth  are 
swept  away  by  the  broom. 

13.  We  may  rest  assured  that  they  have  good  reasons 
for  this  singular  choice,  and  that  the  situations  are  not 
undesirable,  or  the  ants  would  not  seek  them. 

14.  In  the  first  place,  the   ants   must  have  a   care  to 
supply  their  growing  family  with  food,  and  where  could 
they  fare  better  than  near  the  homes  of  man  ?     The  tiny 
crumbs  dropped  by  the  children  are  treasures  to  the  eco- 
nomical ants,  whose  sharp  eyes  see  many  chances  for  feast- 
ing upon  things  we  have  thrown  aside  as  useless. 

15.  Then,  too,  the  bed  of  fine  gravel  which  the  brick- 
layer smooths  so  carefully  to  lay  his  bricks  on  is  a  fine 
place  for  the  ants  to  burrow  in.     The  sun,  shining  upon 
the  bricks,  heats  them,  and  also  the  earth  beneath,  and 
makes  a  warm  place  for  the  ants  to  put  their  Iarva3  when 
they  bring  them  up  out  of  their  nests. 

16.  You  know  how  common  it  is,  on  turning  over  large 
stones,  to  find  the  ground  beneath  covered  with  the  white 
larvae  of  ants,  which  are  quickly  carried  away  and  hidden. 
The  stones  become  heated  during  the  day,  and  retain  the 


140      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN  THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

heat  long  after"  the  sun  has  set.  Ants,  no  doubt,  select 
these  spots  that  they  may  secure  a  safe,  warm  place  in 
which  to  hasten  the  development  of  their  larvae  and  pupae. 

17.  Singular  Relations  with  Plant-lice, — Ants  feed  chief- 
ly upon  insects,  killing  great  numbers  of  them,  and  they 
also   eat  honey,  fruit,  and  almost  any  sweet   substance. 
This  liking  for  sweets  has  led  them  to  form  singular  re- 
lations with  our  common  green  plant  -  lice,  the  aphides. 
The  plant-lice  secrete  a  sweet  liquid  called  honey-dew,  of 
which  ants  are  very  fond,  and  which  they  obtain  by  tap- 
ping the  lice  with  their  antennae. 

18.  Some  species  of  ants  ascend  into  bushes  in  search 
of  these  lice,  and,  having  found  them,  watch  over  and  de- 
fend them  from  attacks  by  other  insects.     Sir  John  Lub- 
bock  says  that  the  ants  take  care  of  the  brown  eggs  of 
aphides  during  winter,  carrying  them  to  the  lower  cham- 
bers of  the  nest  when  it  is  disturbed.     In  the  spring,  when 
the  young  aphides  hatch,  they  are  brought  out  and  placed 
on  tender  shoots  of  plants. 

19.  This  is  a  remarkable  instance  of  forethought.     The 
ants  derive  no  immediate  benefit  from  the  eggs,  yet  by 
taking  care  of  them  they  secure  a  supply  of  their  favorite 
honey- dew  for  the  following  summer. 

20.  Capturing  Slaves, — Fierce  battles  are  fought  between 
different  colonies  of  ants  apparently  for  the  sole  purpose 
of  capturing  slaves.     This  instinct  is  so  strong  with  the 
common  red-ant  that  it  is  spoken  of  as  the  "  slave-mak- 
ing ant."     It  frequently  invades  the  nests  of  black-ants, 
and  fearful  struggles  occur  between  the  two  colonies. 

21.  When  about  to  attack  the  enemy,  red-ants  leave  the 
nest  in  full  force  and  march  directly  to  the  battle-field. 
It  is  not  a  general  warfare,  but  each  red-ant  seizes  upon 
some  black  one,  and  makes  a  desperate  effort  to  kill  it. 


ANTS. 


141 


After  the  battle,  if  the  red-ants  are  victorious,  they  enter 
the  conquered  nest  and  carry  off  the  larvae  and  pupae, 
which  they  bring  up  as  slaves.  These  young  slaves  enter 
at  once  upon  a  life  of  toil,  and  make  no  effort  to  escape. 

22.  Degrad- 
ing Effects  of 
Slavery.— It  has 
been  noticed 
that  this  sys- 
tem of  slavery 
has  a  degrad- 
ing tendency 
among  ants,  as 
it  is  well  known 
to  have  among 
men.  Some  of 
the  slave-mak- 


ing ants  are  so 
accustomed  to 
being  waited 
upon  that  they 
have  lost  the 
art  of  building 
and  of  caring 
for  their  young, 
and  are  entire- 
ly dependent 
upon  their 
slaves  for  these 

services.  They  have  even  lost  the  habit  of  feeding  them- 
selves, and,  although  surrounded  by  food,  they  will  starve 
unless  fed  by  others. 

23.  The  Harvesting  Ants. — The  harvesting  ants  of  Texas 


Fig.  88.  —  QUEEN  OF  SLAVE- 
MAKING  ANTS  (MAGNIFIED). 


142      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

clear  a  circular  space,  ten  or  fifteen  feet  in  diameter,  around 
the  entrance  to  their  nests.  Within  this  space  nothing  is 
allowed  to  grow  but  "ant  rice" — a  species  of  grass,  the 
seeds  of  which  are  carefully  gathered  by  the  ants. 

24.  The  Driver-ants. — Many  species  of  ants  in  hot  coun- 
tries hunt  in  large  packs.     The  driver-ants  of  Africa  hunt 
in  this  way,  and  render  valuable  service  in  clearing  away 
decaying  animal  matter  that  might   otherwise  cause  dis- 
ease.    The  dread  of  visits  from  these  ants  compels  the 
inhabitants  to  keep  their  dwellings  comparatively  clean. 
These  hunting  ants  are  said  to  be  blind,  and  go  out  chiefly 
at  night. 

25.  Termites.— Termites,  or  white-ants,  as  they  are  called, 
do  not  properly  belong  here,  as  they  are  not  true  ants. 
Still,  we  will  study  something  about  them.     They  abound 
in  all  tropical  countries,  living  in  large  communities  and 
committing  serious  ravages.    They  build  structures  above- 
ground,  often  five  feet  high,  composed  of  earth  worked  and 
patted  until  it  becomes  nearly  as  hard  as  stone.     There 
is  no  external  opening  in  these  hills,  but  the  entrance  is 
placed  at  some  distance,  and  is  reached  by  underground 
galleries. 


OYSTERS.  143 


XXII. 
OYSTERS. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  MOLLUSCA  :   CLASS,  LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 

1.  Mollusks:  the  Mantle. — Having  taken  this  mere  glance 
at  the  Articulates,  we  will  begin  our  study  of  Mollusks. 
This  division  includes  soft-bodied  animals  which  are  usual- 
ly provided  with  shells,  and  which  pass  by  the  general 
name  of  "  shell-fishes."     Their  bodies  are  enclosed  by  a 
delicate  membrane  called  a  "  mantle,"  whose  office  it  is  to 

.fiecrete  the  shell.  On  opening  an  oyster  we  see  this  thin, 
glistening  jnantle  lining  the  shell  as  well  as  covering  the 
oyster. 

2.  The  Shell  adapted  to  its  Surroundings. — The  shell  is 
useful  in  protecting  the  soft  body  of  the  mollusk,  and  its 
strength  and  thickness  are  generally  in  proportion  to  the 
dangers  to  which  the  animal  is  exposed.     Those  species 
inhabiting  shallow  places  in  the  ocean  near  the  shore,  and 
hence  exposed  to  the  beating  of  the  waves,  have  stronger 
shells  than  those  living  in  deep  water.     Fresh-water  mol- 
lusks,  on  the  other  hand,  generally  have  delicate  shells. 

3.  Another  provision  of  nature  for  the  safety  of  the  help- 
less mollusks  may  be  seen  in  their  coloring.     Those  which 
spend  most  of  their  lives  at  rest  near  the  same  spot,  as 
oysters  and  clams  do,  are  of  the  same  general  color  as 
their  surroundings.      On  the  contrary,  those  that  move 
about,  as  pectens  and  gasteropods,  are  often  tinted  with 
rich  and  beautiful  colors. 


144      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN  THE  SEA   AND   ON  THE   LAND. 

4.  A  Bivalve  Shell. — When  a  shell  consists  of  two  sep- 
arate pieces  or  valves  opening  by  a  hinge,  it  is  called  a 
bivalve. 

5.  The  Shell  of  an  Oyster  examined.— A  careful  exam- 
ination of  one  mollusk  will  help  us  to  understand  all  the 
others  ;  therefore  we  will  take  an  oyster  as  our  type.     If 
we  cannot  obtain  a  living  oyster,  let  us  at  least  have  the 
shell,  and  examine  it  carefully.     What  is  the  first  thing 
you  see  ?     Is  it  the  thin  layers  of  which  the  shell  is  com- 
posed ? 


Fig.  89. — OYSTER  IN  THE  SHELL  (WITH  MANTLE  REMOVED  FROM  THE  UPPER 

SURFACE). 

A,  muscle;  B,  mantle;  C,  gills;  D,  labial  palpi;  E,  hinge;  F,  mouth;  G,  liver 
and  stomach ;  H,  heart. 


6.  These  layers  are  very  interesting.  You  will  soon  sus- 
pect that  they  have  been  caused  by  the  growth  of  the 
oyster.  By  looking  on  the  outside  of  the  shell  you  may 
see  the  lines  of  growth,  and  perhaps  you  can  detect  the 
shape  of  the  oyster  when  it  was  very  small.  The  delicate 
mantle  (B)  has  deposited  new  layers  of  shelly  matter  upon 


OYSTERS.  145 

the  inside  from  time  to  time,  each  layer  extending  a  little 
beyond  the  edge  of  the  last,  and  increasing  the  size  of  the 
shell. 

7.  After  an  oyster  has  obtained  its  full  growth  the  shell 
does  not  increase  further  in  size,  but  it  becomes  thicker 
by  the  addition  of  one  layer  inside  of  another,  so  that  the 
age  of  an  oyster  may  be  estimated  by  the  thickness  of  its 
shell.     This  thickening  is  readily  seen  at  the  hinge  (E)T 
which  seems  to  have  grown  in  until  it  encroaches  upon 
the  space  intended  for  the  oyster.     Yet  you  will  see  that 
at  one  time  the  hinge  was  at  the  very  tip  of  the  beak. 

8.  In  a  freshly  opened  oyster  you  will  notice  a  tough 
brown  band  in  the  hinge  ;  this  is  the  ligament   which 
unites  the  two  valves,  but,  strangely  enough,  it  acts  like 
a  spring  which  is  constantly  tending  to  throw  the  shell 
open.     Let  us  see  what  causes  this.     The  elastic,  horny 
fibres  which  form  the  ligament  are  placed  endwise  be- 
tween the  valves;  consequently,  they  are  squeezed  when 
the  shell  is  closed,  and  they  try  to  make  room  for  them- 
selves.    If  the  ligaments  in  the  hinge  push  the  shell  open, 
how,  then,  do  you  suppose  it  can  be  closed  ? 

9.  The  purple  spot  on  the  inside  of  each  valve  shows 
where  a  muscle  was  attached  which  extends  right  through 
the  body  of  the   oyster  (A),  and  holds  the  two  valves 
together.    You  know  the  oysterman  has  to  cut  the  oyster 
loose  from  the  shell  at  this  point  with  his  knife,  and  this 
is  the  only  place  at  which  the  oyster  is  attached  to  the 
shell.     The  muscle  is  the  tough  part  of  the  oyster,  and 
when  it  shortens  itself  the  valves    are   drawn  together. 
If  the  muscle  lengthens,  the  valves  fly  open,  as  is  the  case 
when  the  oyster  dies.    Bivalves  naturally  stand  open  with 
a  stream  of  water  flowing  over  the  gills,  unless  they  are 
forcibly  held  together  by  the  muscle.     Fortunately  for  us, 

11 


146      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 

oysters  live  some  time  after  being  taken  out  of  the  water, 
but  they  keep  their  valves  closed  to  retain  their  moisture. 

10.  The  inside  of  the  shell  is  further  marked  by  the 
"  pallial  line,"  which  shows  where  the  edge  of  the  mantle 
has  rested.     By  lifting  the  fringed  edge  of  the  mantle 
four  delicate  gills  (C,  Fig.  89)  may  be  seen  extending  part 
way  round  the  edge  of  the  oyster.     The  gills  are  covered 
with  cilia,  which  by  rapid  motion  produce  a  current  of 
water  towards  the  mouth,  bringing  to  it  particles  of  food 
and,  as  the  current  flows  away  again,  it  carries  off  the 
waste  matter. 

11.  Food  floated  to  the  helpless  Oyster.  — The  helpless 
oyster,  fastened  down  to  its  bed,  has  no  possible  way  of 
seeking  food,  and  it  is  therefore  entirely  dependent  upon 
these  currents  of  water.     Coming  in  this  way,  the  food 
necessarily  consists   of   very   small   plants   and   animals, 
which  are  abundant  in   the  sea,  especially  in   the  quiet 
places  where   oysters   flourish.     Oysters  live   in  shallow 
water  attached  to  some  fixed  object  by  the  lower  valve, 
which  is  larger  and  deeper  than  the  other ;  in  it  the  oyster 
lies  as  in  a  trough. 

12.  The  Oyster  examined. — The  mouth  is  a  mere  slit  at 
the  smaller  end  of  the  oyster  (F),  near  the  hinge.     It  is 
covered   by  four  thin  lips  or  folds  of  membrane,  called 
"  labial  palpi "  (D).     An  03sophagus  leads  to  the  stomach, 
and  the  intestine  passes  through  the  large  liver  (G),  which 
is  of  a  brownish-green  color,  and  occupies  most  of  the 
soft  part  of  the  oyster. 

13.  Oysters  have  no  true  head.      The  heart  (H)  may 
easily  be  seen  in  a  clear  space  near  the  muscle,  and  in  a 
freshly  opened  specimen  it  will  beat  slowly  and  regularly. 
It  consists  of   two  sacs,  one   large   and   transparent,  the 
other  small  and  brownish. 


OYSTERS.  147 

14.  Large  Number  of  Young  Ones, — Spawning  season  oc- 
curs during  the  summer  months,  at  which  time  the  eggs 
floating  in  the  fluid  around  the  gills  give  to  it  a  thick, 
creamy  appearance.     Oysters  are  not  then  in  good  con- 
dition for  food.     They  produce  an  immense  number  of 
young  ones.    It  is  thought  one  oyster  may  yield  a  million 
in   a   season,  and    the  whole   number   of    young   oysters 
thrown  out  from  an  ordinary  oyster-bank  is  almost  incal- 
culable.   The  eggs  leave  the  parent  shell  in  puffs  of  milky 
fluid,  and  are  sometimes  so  thick  as  to  make  the  water 
look  clouded  until  they  are  scattered  by  the  waves. 

15.  They  settle  for  Life.  —  When   the   young  ones  are 
hatched  they  swim  about  for  a  time,  then  attach  them- 
selves for  life  to  some  solid  object.     Unless  they  find  a 
clean,  hard  surface  to  fasten  to,  the  little  things  will  prob- 
ably perish  in  the  mud  or  be  devoured  by  larger  animals. 
A  very  large  proportion  of  the  young  is  destroyed  in  this 
way. 

16.  Oyster-beds.— Oyster-beds  generally  exist  in  brack- 
ish water  upon  a  bottom  of  clay  or  mud  which  is  firm 
enough  to  prevent  the  oysters  from  sinking  into  it.     The 
water  must  also  contain  lime  to  supply  the  oyster  with 
the  material  for  its  shell.     It  is  found  that  oyster-beds 
increase  in  the  direction  of  the  current,  the  young  ones 
having  drifted  with  the  tide  before  settling. 

1 7.  Cultivation  of  Oysters. — In  addition  to  natural  oys- 
ter-beds, there  are  many  "  oyster  farms,"  where  these  deli- 
cious mollusks  are  regularly  cultivated.    Stakes  are  driven 
in  the  mud  in  shallow  water,  and  branches  of  trees,  rough 
boards,  or  stones  are  placed  between  them  for  the  baby 
oysters  to  fasten   themselves  to.     When   the  nursery  is 
ready,  several    boat  -  loads  of   oysters  are  dropped  near 
the  spot.     The  oysters  rapidly  increase  in  size  and  uum- 


148      ANIMAL    LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

bers,  and  are  ready  for  the  table   in  from  two  to  four 
years. 

18.  Oysters  destroyed  by  Dredging. — Oysters  are  gener- 
ally fished  with  a  dredge.     As  this  instrument  is  dragged 
over  the  bed,  the  teeth  pull  up  the  oysters,  both  large 
and  small,  from  their  resting-place.     Those  that  are  too 
young  for  market  are  thrown  back  into  the  water,  and  if 
they  fall  on  a  suitable  surface  they  will  again  attach  them- 
selves, and  continue  to  grow.     Many  of   them,  however, 
sink  in  the  mud  and  are  suffocated. 

19.  The  process  of  dredging  is  also  destructive  to  the 
oysters  which   remain    on   the  bed,  as   they  are  roughly 
torn  from  each  other  and  dragged  into  the  mud.     Here 
they  cannot  open  their  valves  without  admitting  the  mud, 
and  this  is  certain  death  to  an  oyster. 

20.  Oysters  are  highly  esteemed  for  food  on  account  of 
their  delicious  flavor,  and  the  demand  for  them  is  con- 
stantly increasing.     This  leads  to  excessive  fishing  of  the 
oyster  -  beds,  and  in  many  places  the  beds  yield  a  much 
smaller  supply  than  formerly.    Such  is  the  case  with  many 
of  the  European  oyster-beds.     The  French  government 
has  been  obliged  to  take  control  of  those  on  its  shores, 
and  to  enforce  certain  laws  with  regard  to  fishing  them. 


MUSSELS   AND   PECTENS. 


149 


XXIII. 
MUSSELS  AND   PECTENS. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  MOLLUSCA  :  CLASS,  LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 

1.  Marine  Mussels.— Marine  mussels  grow  in  large  beds 
in  shallow  water,  fastened  to  stones  and  sand-banks,  and 
making  a  solid  black  mass.  They  often  cling  to  posts 
and  piers,  where  they  are  left  uncovered  when  the  tide  is 
low.  At  such  times  they  keep  their  shells  tightly  closed, 
like  barnacles. 


Fig.  89a. — BUNCH  OF  MUSSEL -SHELLS. 

2.  The  Foot  of  the  Mussel. — The  structure  of  mussels  is 
similar  to  that  of  oysters,  except  that  they  have  a  tough 
foot.  This  is  a  thick,  fleshy  organ,  which  may  be  pushed 
out  to  a  great  length.  In  different  species  of  mollusks 
the  foot  has  various  uses,  enabling  the  animal  to  push  it 


150      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN  THE   SEA   AND   ON  THE   LAND. 

self  about  or  to  leap,  while  often  it  is  used  for  boring 
holes  in  the  sand  or  mud.  Although  this  organ  helps 
some  mollusks  to  move  about  from  place  to  place,  it  does 
not  resemble  a  real  foot,  but  is  more  like  a  tongue. 

3.  The  Byssus. — Mussels  are  hatched  within  the  shell  of 
their  parents.     After   leaving  the    shell,  and  swimming 
around  for  a  while,  they  attach  themselves  to  some  ob- 
ject by  silken  threads  called  byssus.     At  the  base  of  the 
foot  is  a  gland  for  secreting  the  fluid  byssus,  which,  when 
dry,  forms  into  brown  threads  not  unlike  the  silk  of  spi- 
ders and  caterpillars.     The  foot  attaches  this  sticky  fluid 
to  some  object,  and  is  then  withdrawn,  leaving  the  silk 
fastened  to  the  surface.    Mussels  are  also  joined  to  one  an- 
other in  great  bunches,  as  well  as  to  the  bed  of  the  ocean. 

4.  The  threads  of  byssus  are  long  enough  to  admit  of 
slight  motion,  as  the  mussels  float  and  drift   back  and 
forth,  so  these  animals  are  not  compelled  to  remain  in  one 
position,  as  oysters  do.     If  the  byssus  is  broken  the  mus- 
sels attach  themselves  again  by  other  threads. 

5.  How  strange  it  seems  that  these  lowly  sea-creatures 
should  spin  silk  ;  yet  the  long,  fine  threads  of  byssus  have 
sometimes  been  woven  into  gloves  and  stockings,  and  even 
into  cloth. 

6.  The  fresh-water  mussels  have  no  fierce  waves  and 
tides  to  resist,  and  therefore  do  not  secrete  byssus. 

7.  Mussels  cultivated  for  Food. — Salt-water  mussels  are 
used  for  food,  and  are  cultivated  like  oysters.     When  the 
young  mussels  have  reached  the  size  of  a  small  bean  they 
are  scraped  in  masses  from  objects  to  which  they  have 
adhered,  and  are  carried  in  baskets  to  places  suited  for 
their  growth.     They  soon  attach  themselves  to  posts  and 
branches  of  trees  prepared  for  them,  and  are  transplanted 
in  this  way  three  times  before  reaching  their  full  size. 


MUSSELS   AND   PECTENS.  151 

8.  The  Epidermis  of  Shells. — All  living  shells  have  an 
outer  layer  of  animal  matter  called  epidermis  ;  they  have 
no  lustre  upon  the  exterior  until  this  epidermis  is  taken 
off  and  the  surface  is  polished.     Mussel-shells  show  beau- 
tiful blue  tints  when  the  epidermis  is  removed. 

9.  The  Color  heightened  by  the  Action  of  Light. — The 
color  of  shells  depends  much  upon  the  action  of  light,  and 
those  grown  in  shallow  water  have  generally  brighter  col- 
ors than  those  grown  in  deep  water.    The  largest  and  most 
highly  colored  shells  are  found  in  the  tropics,  whereas  arctic 
shells  are  mainly  small  and  dull.     The  peculiar  lustre  of 
shells  is  due  to  the  minute  edges  of  alternate  layers  of 
carbonate  of  lime  and  animal  tissue.     In  order  to  fully 
enjoy  these  treasures   of  the  ocean,  we  must  see  them 
under  the  sparkling  water,  where  their  beautiful  forms 
and  colors  are  heightened  by 

"  The  sun,  and  the  sand,  and  the  wild  uproar." 

10.  How  Pearls  are  Formed, — Pearls  are  formed  in  shells 
when  grains  of  sand  lodge  between  the  mantle  and  the  shell 
and  become  coated  with  the  shelly  matter,  or  "nacre," 
which  the  mantle  secretes.     Fresh  -  water   mussels  yield 
pearls  that  are  sometimes  quite  valuable,  but  the  finest 
pearls  are  obtained  from  the  pearl-oyster.     The  pearl-oys- 
ter in  Fig.  90  is  the  circular  shell,  which  has  a  straight 
hinge  and  one  pearl  clinging  to  it,  and  which  is  partly  cov- 
ered by  the  mussel-shell. 

11.  Pearls  mostly  have  a  nucleus  of  sand  in  the  centre, 
and  the  shelly  layers  are  arranged  around  it  like  the  coats 
of  an  onion.    The  Chinese  take  advantage  of  this  fact,  and 
sometimes  place  small  images  or  beads  inside  the  shell, 
allowing  them  to  remain  until  they  are  coated  with  pearl. 
Some  of  these  are  shown  at  the  right  of  the  picture. 


152      ANIMAL    LIFE    IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


Fig.  90. — PEARL-BEARING  SHELLS. 

12.  Pearl  Fisheries. — The  most  important  pearl  fisheries 
are  on  the  coast  of  Ceylon.    The  same  locality  is  not  fished 
every  year  for  fear  of  impoverishing  it.     The  labor  of  div- 
ing for  pearl-oysters  is  very  severe.    The  divers  remain  un- 
der water  only  thirty  seconds  at  a  time,  but  they  sometimes 
dive  twenty  times  in  one  morning,  and  become  very  much 
exhausted.    Having  touched  bottom,  the  diver  gathers  the 
oysters  within  reach,  and  places  them  in  a  net,  then  he 
pulls  a  cord  as  a  signal  to  be  drawn  up  immediately.     At 
mid-day  a  gun  sounds  for  the  fishing  to  stop,  and  the  boats 
are  taken  to  the  shore  and  unloaded  before  dark,  in  the 
presence  of  officers,  so  that  no  robbing  shall  be  done. 

13.  The  oysters  are  allowed  to  remain  on  shore  until 
they   decompose.     The  pearls   are   then    easily  gathered 
from  the  gaping  shells,  and  they  are  worked  with  pow- 
dered  nacre  to  give  them  a  good  polish.     Pearls  may  be 
round,  ovoid,  or  pear-shaped.     Those  which  adhere  to  the 


MUSSELS   AND    PECTENS. 


153 


valves  are  consequently  irregular  in  shape,  and,  as  they 
are  not  so  valuable  as  others,  they  are  sold  by  weight. 
Mother-of-pearl  is  the  lustrous  layer  taken  from  the  inside 
of  the  shell  of  the  pearl-oyster. 

14.  Celebrated  Pearls. — There  are  a  few  fine  pearls  so 
remarkable  for  their  size  and  beauty  as  to  have  become 
historical,  and  their   line   of  descent   can  be  traced  for 
generations.     Most  of  these  pearls  belong  to  kings  and 
princes.     A  famous  string  of  pearls  belongs  to  the  Shahs 
of  Persia  in  which  each  pearl  is  the  size  of  a  hazel-nut. 

15.  Pectens. — Pectens  (Fig.  91)  are  found  in  all  seas, 
and  of  many  different  varieties.     Their  elegant  shells  are 
ribbed  and  mottled  with  various  colors,  and  they  grow  by 
additions  made  to  the 

edge,  rather  than  by 
a  thickening  of  the 
valves,  as  in  the  oys- 
ter. The  hinge  is  ex- 
tended into  broad  ears, 
and  is  worked  by  a 
ligament  placed  in  a 
tiny  pit  which  you  can 
easily  discover.  The 
mantle  is  fringed  with 
tentacles,  and  has  a 
double  row  of  bright 
spots  on  the  edge, 
which  are  thought  to 
be  eyes. 

16.  Contrary  to  the  habits  of  most  bivalves,  the  pretty 
little  pectens  can  swim  through  the  water.     As  they  are 
propelled  by  alternately  opening  and  closing  their  valves, 
their  movements  consist  of  a  succession  of  jerks, 


Fig.  91.— PECTEN  SHELL. 


154      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 


XXIV. 
CLAMS  AND   RAZOR-FISHES. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  MOLLUSCA  :    CLASS,  LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 

1 .  Markings  upon  the  Inside  of  a  Clam-shell. — The  name 
"clam"  is  applied  to  many  different  species  of  mollusks 
along  our  coast  having  thick  shells.     Upon  looking  care- 
fully at    one   of 
these  shells  you 
will  find  that  it 
differs   in   many 
respects  from  the 
oyster- shell 
which  we  exam- 
ined.     You  will 
at  once  notice  the 
two  marks  («,  a', 
Fig.  92)  left   by 
the  muscles,  and 

Fig.  92.— INSIDK  OF  A  CLAM  SHELL.  you  will    readily 

a,  a',  impressions  of  the  muscles;  p,  pallial  line  ;  s,  bend     infer      that       the 
occupied  by  the  siphon ;  h,  hinge ;  c,  t,  t',  teeth. 

valves   of    clam- 
shells must  be  connected  by  two  muscles. 

2.  What  curious  freaks  the  pallia!  line  (p)  has  taken  be- 
tween these  two  points.      You   can   scarcely  understand 
now  why  it  should  turn  inward  and  make  that  deep  bend, 
but  when  you  have  learned  about  the  animal  that  inhab- 
ited this  shell,  the  reason  will  be  plain  to  you. 


CLAMS  AND  RAZOR-FISHES.  155 

3.  Teeth  in  the  Hinge. — There  are  also  peculiarities  in 
the  hinge  (h)  which  we  must  not  fail  to  observe.     The 
spaces  between  the  three  teeth  (c,  t,  t')  are  exactly  fitted 
by  two  other  teeth  in  the  opposite  valve,  and  these  inter- 
lock when  the  shell  is  closed.     In  some  species  of  clams 
there  is  a  large,  spoon-shaped  hollow  at  the  hinge,  with 
long  ridges  on  each  side  fitting  into  corresponding  grooves 
on  the  opposite  valve.     The  central  hollow  space  contains 
the  ligament,  or  spring,  which,  as  we  learned  in  the  oyster, 
is  always  trying  to  push  open  the  shell. 

4.  Lines  of  Growth  on  the  Shell.— On  the  outside  of  the 
shell  the  lines  of  growth  are  plainly  seen,  and  you  can 
trace  the  exact  size  of  the  clam  at  different  periods  of  its 
history  all  the  way  back  to  babyhood.     These  shells  do 
not  grow  thick  with  age. 

5.  Mantle  attached  to  both  Valves. — A  clam,  we  know, 
always  looks  torn  and  ragged  on  opening  the  shell.     It 
is  impossible  to  remove  the  valves  and  leave  the  animal 
smooth  and  uninjured,  as  the  oyster  is  when  taken  from 
its  shell.     This  is  because  the  mantle  is  attached  to  both 
valves   along  the  pallial  line,  making   a   closed  bag  for 
fluids,  which  is  torn  when  we  open  the  shell. 

6.  Mantle  rolled  into  Tubes  forming  a  Siphon. — Water 
is  admitted  into  this  closed  sac  only  through  a  siphon  (#, 
c,  Fig.  93),  which  is  in  reality  the  mantle  rolled  up  into 
two  tubes.     Through  one  of  these  tubes  a  stream  of  sea- 
water   enters,  and,  circulating  under  the   mantle,  passes 
down  to  the  mouth  and  gills.     It  is  then  thrown  out  by 
the  second  tube,  carrying  off  with  it  all  waste  matter. 
The  circulation  of  water  is  kept  up  by  countless  cilia 
which  line  the  tubes,  and  which,  by  their  constant  waving 
motion,  draw  the  water  towards  the  gills. 

7.  The  tentacles  at  the  entrance  of  the  siphon  are  very 


150      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE  SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

sensitive  to  the  touch,  and  keep  out  all  floating  particles 
except  the  very  small  ones  which  are  suitable  for  food. 

8.  You  will  now  understand  that  the  curious  bend  (s) 
in  the  pallial  line  (Fig.  92)  is  the  impression  left  by  this 
siphon. 

9.  Organs. — The  gills  and  the  labial  palpi  of  the  clam 
are  similar  to  those  of  the  oyster.    The  heart  is  under  the 
hinge,  and,  strangely  enough,  the  intestine  passes  directly 


CL 


Fig.  93. — CLAM  (MACTRA). 
a,  foot ;  &,  c,  siphons. 

through  it.  Clams  have  a  tough  foot  (a,  Fig.  93)  near  the 
mouth,  by  means  of  which  they  push  themselves  along  and 
dig  holes  in  the  sandy  beaches,  and  to  this  life  they  are 
well  suited.  It  is  surprising  to  see  how  these  animals  can 
increase  their  size  when  they  wish  to  extend  the  foot,  the 
siphon,  or  the  edges  of  the  mantle.  This  is  done  by  taking 
in  sea-water  through  numerous  pores  in  the  skin.  Touch 
the  mollusk,  however,  when  these  parts  are  extended,  and 
they  are  quickly  drawn  in  and  the  shell  closed. 

10.  Clams  lie  Buried  in  the  Mud.  —  Clams  spend  their 
time  buried  in  the  soft  mud,  with  the  mouth  downward 
and  the  siphon  extended  far  enough  out  of  the  shell  to 
reach  the  water  above.  They  may  sometimes  be  seen 


CLAMS    AND    HA! 


157 


spouting  water  from  small  holes  on  the  beach.  It  is 
good  sport  to  dig  them  out  and  see  how  nimbly  they 
bury  themselves  again  in  the  sand,  using 
no  tool  but  the  foot.  Many  clams  have 
only  a  short  siphon  which  does  not  ex- 
tend far  beyond  the  shell. 

11.  Razor-fishes.  —  Some  of  these  holes 
on  the  beach  you  may  find  occupied  by 
razor -fishes   (Fig.  94),  which    are   not   so 
easily  caught  as  clams.      These  mollusks 
are  abundant  on   all  sandy  shores,  where 
they  live  buried  in  the  mud.     By  means  of 
the  foot  they  dig  a  deep  hole,  which  they 
do   not  leave.      They   raise    themselves   to 
the    entrance    of   this    hole,  but    disappear 
quickly  upon  the  slightest  alarm. 

12.  Fishermen  become  very  expert  in  deal- 
ing with  the  peculiar  habits  of  timid  sea- 
animals,  but   even   the   fishermen  find   the 
razor-fish  hard  to  catch,  and  if  they  fail  in 
the  first  attempt  to  capture  it,  no  further 
efforts  will  induce  the  shy  creature  to  ap- 
pear again. 

13.  The  long,  slender  razor -shell  is  thin 

and  brittle,  with  delicate  tints  of  rose  or  violet,  which  are 
nearly  concealed  by  the  brown  epidermis  covering  it. 


Fig.  94. 
RAZOR-SHKLL 

(SOLEN). 


158      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


XXV 
GASTEROPODS. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  MOLLUSCA  :    CLASS,  GASTEROPODA. 

1.  Gasteropods  a  large  Class. — Leaving  the  bivalves,  we 
will  now  turn  our  attention  to  the  gasteropods — a  large 
class,  which  contains  three-fourths 
of  all  living  mollusks.  They  are 
found  in  fresh  water  as  well  as 
in  salt.  Some,  such  as  snails,  live 
also  on  the  land. 

2.  Univalves. — Gasteropods  are 
known  as  univalves,  since  they 
have  but  one  shell,  which  is  gen- 
erally a  tube  twisted  spirally  from 
a  point  called  the  apex.  A  few 
of  their  beautiful  forms  are  given 
in  Fig.  99.  In  almost  any  collec- 
tion of  shells  you  will  find  some 
of  these  gasteropods.  By  sawing 
one  open  the  spiral  tube  may  be 
seen  winding  round  a  central  col- 
umn, as  shown  in  Fig.  95,  and 
gradually  growing  larger  towards 
the  opening.  You  will  be  inter- 
ested in  tracing  the  coil  on  the  outside  of  these  shells, 
observing  that  as  the  occupant  increased  in  size  it  made 
for  itself  more  and  more  room  in  the  shell. 


Fig.  95.  —  SECTION  OP   A 
SPIRAL  UNIVALVE. 


GASTEROPODS.  159 

3.  Shell  enlarged  by  Secretion  from  the  Mantle.— We 
have  before  learned  that  all  shells  are  secreted  by  the 
mantle.  As  the  shell  of  the  gasteropod  needs  enlarging, 
the  mantle,  stretching  over  the  edge  of  it,  deposits  a  layer 
of  shelly  matter,  and  thus  the  shell  gains  a  new  and 
larger  rim.  The  outer  edge  of  the  mantle  often  contains 
bright-colored  spots,  which  impart  their  tints  to  the  rim 
of  the  shell,  ornamenting  it  with  bright  streaks  and  lines. 


Fig.  96.— WHELK. 
o,  opercnlnm  ;  s,  siphon. 

4.  What  Forms  the  Spines  on  some  Shells?— The  edges 
and  notches  of  the  old  rim  are  often  marked  upon  the 
outside  of  the  shell,  and  there  are  sometimes  long,  bris- 
tling spines  sticking  out  from  them.  How  could  these 
spines  have  been  formed  ?  Wherever  there  is  a  spine, 
there  must  have  been  at  that  point  a  fold  of  the  mantle 
pushed  out  over  the  rim  of  the  shell  to  form  a  tube. 
This  fold,  like  every  other  part  of  the  mantle,  deposited 
shelly  matter,  and  finally  formed  the  stiff  spine.  Of 


160      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


course,  it  is  of  no  further  use  after  the  rim  has  grown 
beyond  it. 

5.  Most  of  those  gasteropods  that  have  the  margin  of 
the  shell  notched  and  lengthened  into  a  canal  are  vflesh- 
eaters,  whereas  those  having  an  entire  and  even  margin 
live  on  vegetable  food. 

6.  Gasteropods  Highly  Organized.  —  Gasteropods,  as  a 
general  thing,  are  quite  highly  organized.     They  have  a 
distinct  head,  with  two  tentacles,  and  eyes  that  are  some- 
times stalked;  they  are  believed  to  have  the  senses  of 

hearing  and  of 
taste,  also,  which 
indicates  a  high- 
er stage  of  devel- 
opment than  that 
of  the  oyster  and 

clani. 
.  97. — LINGUAL  RIBBONS.  «  .     , 

7.  Siphon  — 
Operculum.— 
Water  is  admit- 
ted within  the  body  by  means  of  a  siphon,  and  at  this  point 
the  shell  is  often  lengthened  into  a  long  canal.  The  thick 
tough  foot  may  be  extended  entirely  beyond  the  shell,  but 
gasteropods  are  timid  creatures,  and  when  alarmed  all 
parts  of  the  body  are  instantly  drawn  in,  and  the  entrance 
is  closed  with  a  horny  plate  on  the  foot,  which  is  repre- 
sented at  o,  Fig.  96.  This  plate  fits  snugly  in  the  shell, 
and  is  called  the  operculum.  The  operculum  of  some 
gasteropods  consists  of  limestone;  small  ones  of  this  kind 
are  known  as  "  eye-stones,"  and  were  formerly  used  to  re- 
move irritating  particles  of  dust  from  the  eye. 

8.  Lingual  Ribbon.  —  Gasteropods   have   a  remarkable 
tongue,  which  contains  many  sharp  -  pointed  teeth  set  in 


B 


A,  portion  of  tongue  of  Velutina,  enlarged ;  B,  portion 
of  tongue  of  whelk,  magnified ;  C,  head  and  tongue 
of  limpet ;  D,  portion  of  same,  greatly  magnified. 


GASTEROPODS.  161 

distinct  rows  (Fig.  97).  The  growth  of  the  tongue  con- 
tinues during  the  life  of  the  animal,  new  teeth  forming 
at  the  base  of  the  tongue  and  growing  forward  to  take 
the  place  of  those  that  are  worn  off  at  the  tip.  This 
tongue  is  spoken  of  as  the  "  lingual  ribbon,"  or  as  the 
"  odontophore." 

9.  Shells  bored  by  the  Lin- 
gual Ribbon.— With  the  lin- 
gual ribbon  gasteropods  file 
holes  in  other  shells,  through 
which  they  suck  out  the  soft 
body.     Many  strong  shells 
that  would  apparently  make 

an    excellent    defence    are    . 

Fig.  98. — CLAM-SHELL  BORED  BY  LIN- 

found  to  be  pierced  in  this          GUAL  RIBBON  OF  GASTEROPOD. 
way  by  a  round  hole,  the 

edges  of  which  are  perfectly  true  and  even,  indicat- 
ing not  only  good  tools,  but  a  skilful  use  of  them 
(Fig.  98). 

10.  Shells  that  are  washed  ashore  are  mostly  empty, 
and  now  that  your  attention  has  been  called  to  the  fact, 
you  will  be  surprised  to  see  so  many  bearing  this  round 
hole,  and  telling  the  sad  fate  of  their  former  inmates. 
You  will  find  that  the  hole  is  made  near  the  hinge,  and 
directly  over  the  softest  part  of  the  body. 

11.  Digestion  of  Gasteropods.— In  addition  to  the  numer- 
ous teeth  on  the  tongue  of  gasteropods  there  are  hard 
plates  in   the  stomach  for  crushing  food.     After  being 
mixed  with  saliva,  which  is  furnished  by  salivary  glands, 
the  food  passes  through  a  long  oesophagus  into  the  stom- 
ach.    Here  the  food  is  acted  upon  by  fluids  secreted  by 
the  liver  and  other  glands.     It  then  passes  into  a  long 
intestine,  where  the  nourishing  portions  are  absorbed  into 


162      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN    THE   SEA   AND   ON    THE    LAND. 


the  blood,  and  sent  with  it  to  all 
parts  of  the  body  by  the  beating 
of  the  two-celled  heart. 


Fig.  99. — SEA-SHELLS. 


GASTEROPODS. 


163 


12.  Breathing.  —  Gasteropods  breathe   either  by  lungs 
or  by  gills,  some  of  them  coming  frequently  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  for  air.     They  push 

themselves  along  by  the  foot,  and 
many  of  them  swim  freely  through 
the  water. 

13.  Clusters  of  Egg-cases.— On  the 
sea-shore  we  find  many  singular-look- 
ing objects,  whose  appearance  alone 
would  give  us  no  idea  of  their  real 
character.     This  is  true  of  the  odd- 
shaped  egg-cases  of  many  gasteropods. 


Fig.  100.— EGG-CASKS  OF 
WHELK. 


Among  these  are 

the  eggs  of  the  whelk  (Fig.  100), 
which  are  found  united  in  large 
masses,  each  egg  in  the  cluster  be- 
ing enclosed  in  a  little  sac  of  its 
own. 

14.  Many  of  you  have  picked  up 
on  the  saa-shore  long  strings  of  the 
egg-cases  of  the  pear-conch  (Fig. 
101).     These  are  very  common  on 
sandy  beaches.    They  are  composed 
of   many   cream  -  colored   cases,  or 
capsules,  of  a  tough,  leathery  sub- 
stance, which  diminish  in  size  tow- 
ards both  ends  of  the  string. 

15.  They    contain    eggs    which 
hatch  within  the  capsule,  each  little 
conch  being  provided  with  a  tiny 
shell.     After  consuming  the  jelly- 
like  fluid  with  which  the   capsule 

is  filled,  the  animals  work  their  way  out  of  the  leathery 
bag  and  bury  themselves  in  the  sand. 


Fig.  101.  —  EGG -CASES  OF 
PEAR-CONCH. 


i£.  102. — NATICA. 


164:      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

16.  If  you  examine  the  cases  you  will  find  a  little 
round  hole  on  the  top  of  each  one,  which  is  closed  by  a 
gristly  substance,  and  looks  as  if  it 
were  provided  as  an  easy  means  of 
escape  for  the  young  conchs.  Cut 
open  a  case,  and  if  the  little  occupants 
have  not  already  escaped,  you  will 
find  it  filled  with  lovely  shells. 

17.  The  Nidus  of  the  Natica. — One 
of  the  sea -snails  (the  natica,  Fig. 
102)  makes  a  ring-shaped  nest,  or  "  nidus,"  of  fine  grains 
of  black  and  white  sea  -  shore  sand,  glued  together  by 
the  slimy  substance  in  which 
the  eggs  are  deposited.  This 
nidus  (Fig.  103)  when  first  taken 
from  the  water  is  soft  and  leath- 
ery, but  it  becomes  exceedingly 
brittle  when  dry.  It  somewhat 
resembles  the  broad  rim  of  an 
old  felt  hat,  and  its  surface  is  Fig.  103.— EGG-CASE  OF  NATICA. 
often  thickly  studded  with  the 

egg -capsules  of  another  gasteropod,  the  nassa,  which 
avails  itself  of  this  convenient  place  of  deposit  for  its 
eggs. 


LIMPETS  AND   LAND  SNAILS.  165 


XXVI. 
LIMPETS  AND  LAND  SNAILS. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  MOLLUSCA  :    CLASS,  GASTEROPODA. 

1.  Limpets.  —  Limpets  are  attractive  little  gasteropods 
living  on  those  parts  of  the  sea-shore  which  are  left  un- 
covered at  low  tide.     Our  best  time  to  watch  them  will  be 
when  the  shallow  water  is  rippling  over  their  bodies,  and 
their  conical  shells  are  lifted  that  they  may  enjoy  the 
full  benefit  of  the  bath. 

2.  The  Shell.— The  univalve  shell,  you  will  observe,  is 
not  spiral,  but  is  a  simple  oval  shell,  tapering  to  a  point 
on  the  top  like  a  tent.     This  shape 

gives  great  strength  to  the  shell, 
and  enables  it  to  support  a  heavy 
weight  without  injury.  The  exte- 
rior of  the  shell  is  a  dull  gray  col- 
or, without  much  ornamentation,  Fig.  104. — LIMPET-SHELL. 
but  the  interior  is  peculiarly  smooth 
and  lustrous,  and  is  prettily  marked  by  the  pallial  line. 

3.  When  under  water,  limpets  move  about  slowly  by 
means  of  a  round  foot,  but  as  their  gills  cannot  long  bear 
exposure  to  the  air,  when  the  tide  is  out  their  shells  are 
drawn  down  close  to  the  rock  and  held  there  tightly. 

4.  Limpets  adhere  firmly  to  the  Rocks.  —  The  foot  has 
some  power  of  adhering  firmly  to  surfaces  as  if  it  were 
glued,  and  when  the  limpets  are  alarmed  they  hold  on  so 


160      ANIMAL    LIFE    IN    THE   SEA    ANl)   ON   THE   LAND. 

tightly  that  it  is  difficult  to  remove  them.  In  attempting 
to  pry  them  off,  the  shell  is  often  broken  before  they  let 
go  their  hold.  Limpets  sometimes  remain  so  long  in  one 
spot  that  the  rock  is  hollowed  out  to  their  exact  shape. 
Sea-birds  are  fond  of  eating  them,  and  are  so  cunning  as 
to  thrust  their  bills  under  the  shell  when  it  is  lifted. 

5.  How  Limpets  Eat. — The   limpets  head  is  furnished 
with  a  pair  of  eyes  and  a  pair  of  tentacles.     The  lingual 
ribbon  is  covered  with  sharp  teeth  set  in  three  rows,  and 
is  three  times  the  length  of  the  entire  animal.     Limpets 
feed  upon  sea-weed,  sometimes  making  a  noise  with  the 
tongue  as  it  strikes  upon  the  hard  upper  jaw  in  biting. 

6.  A  Large  Limpet. — The  limpets   in  tropical   seas   are 
larger  and  richer  in  color  than  ours.     One  species  is  found 
at  the  Strait  of  Magellan  having  a  shell  nearly  a  foot  in 
width,  which  is  used  by  the  natives  as  a  basin. 

7.  Snails. — Limpets  furnish  us  an  example  of  gastero- 
pods  that  live  partly  out  of  water,  but  their  cousins,  the 
snails,  which   we  will   next  consider,  have   gone  a  step 
farther  and  live  altogether  on  land. 

8.  It  is  amusing  to  watch  the  motions  of  these  curious 
snails  as  they  crawl  about  with  their  great   shell  houses 
on  their  backs,  stretching  out  their  feelers,  then  suddenly 
drawing  them  in  again.     All  at  once  some  fancy  seems  to 
strike  these  uncertain  individuals,  and  the   whole  slimy 
dark-gray  body  is  pulled  back  into  the  shell. 

9.  The  Shell.— The  shell  is  remarkably  light  and  delicate, 
and  you  may  easily  trace  the  coil  upon  the  outside.     In 
some  species  the  edge  is  plain  and  sharp,  while  others  have 
the  edge  folded  back  to  make  a  smooth,  firm  border. 

10.  Senses  of  Sight  and  Smell. — Snails  are  better  trav- 
ellers than  limpets,  and  far  more  active.    Like  them,  they 
have  a  foot  and  a  lingual  ribbon.     Besides  the  long  tenta- 


LIMPETS   AND   LAND   SNAILS. 


167 


105. — ANATOMY  OK  A  SNAIL. 


a,  mouth;  b,  foot;  c,  anus;  d,  Inug;  e,  stomach,  covered  above  by  the  salivary 
glands;  /,  intestine;  g,  liver;  h,  heart;  i,  aorta;  j,  gastric  artery;  k,  artery  of 
the  fool ;  I,  hepatic  artery;  m,  abdominal  cavity;  n,  irregular  canal  communi- 
cating with  the  abdominal  cavity,  and  carrying  the  blood  to  the  lung;  o,  vessel 
carrying  the  blood  from  the  lung  to  the  heart. 

cles  tipped  with  black  eye- specks,  snails  have  a  shorter 
pair,  which,  it  is  thought,  are  organs  of  smell.  This  lat- 
ter sense  is  apparently  more  keen  than  their  sight,  since 
they  are  attracted  by  odors  of  fruit  and  vegetables,  though 
they  do  not  seem  to  see  obstacles  placed  in  their  way. 

1 1.  The  Breathing  Organ. — The  breathing  organ  of  snails 
is  a  chamber  lined  with  a   net-work  of   blood-vessels  (dy 
Fig.  105),  and  supplied  with  air  by  a  small  orifice  which 
may  be  seen  to  open  occasionally.     The  air  is  then  ex- 
pelled from  this  chamber  by  drawing  the  body  into  the 
narrow  part  of  the  shell. 

12.  Where  Snails  Live.— Snails  delight  in  warm,  damp 
weather,  and  they  may  be  easily  found  in  shady  places  in  the 
woods.     When  winter  comes  they  hide  in  the  ground,  and 
close  their  shells  with  successive  layers  of  mucus,  which, 
when  dry,  form  a  hard  membrane  over  the  opening.     Their 
eggs  are  laid  loose  under  damp  leaves  and  stones. 


168      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

13.  These   land  mollusks    have  perhaps   gradually  ac- 
customed themselves  to  living,  first  in  marshes,  then  in 
damp,  swampy  places,  until  finally  we  have  some  species 
living  entirely  upon  dry  land.     Still,  their  favorite  spots 
are  the  shady,  moist  ones. 

14.  Snails  eaten  for  Food. — In  many  parts  of  Europe 
snails  are  eaten  for  food,  and  they  are  sometimes  painted 
on  the  sign -boards  of  restaurants    and  drinking   shops. 


Fig.  106.— AN  EDIBLE  SNAIL. 

They  were  considered  a  delicacy  by  the  ancient  Romans, 
who  served  them  at  their  funeral  entertainments.  In  the 
buried  city  of  Pompeii,  among  other  curious  relics,  heaps 
of  snail  -  shells,  which  are  the  remains  of  these  funeral 
feasts,  are  found  in  the  cemetery. 

15.  Young  Snails.  — Common  snails  kept  through  the 
winter  in  the  damp  earth  of  our  window  plants  will 
prove  a  source  of  great  interest.  In  the  spring  they  de- 
posit tiny  white  eggs,  so  delicate  as  not  easily  to  be  lift- 
ed. On  breaking  one,  a  perfect  little  snail-shell  may  be 
seen  within.  Later  on  we  have  the  gratification  of  see- 
ing the  young  snails  start  off  for  themselves,  creeping  up 


LIMPETS  AND  LAND  SNAILS.  169 

and  down  over  the   rough  places,  and  performing,  on  a 
small  scale,  all  the  manoeuvres  of  their  elders. 

THE  HOUSE-KEEPER. 

"The  frugal  snail,  with  forecast  of  repose, 
Carries  his  house  with  him  where'er  he  goes ; 
Peeps  out,  and  if  there  comes  a  shower  of  rain, 
Retreats  to  his  small  domicile  amain. 
Touch  but  a  tip  of  him,  a  horn,  'tis  well — 
He  curls  up  in  his  sanctuary  shell. 
He's  his  own  landlord,  his  own  tenant;   stay 
Long  as  he  will,  he  dreads  no  quarter-day  ; 
Himself  he  boards  and  lodges ;    both  invites 
And  feasts  himself;   sleeps  with  himself  o'  nights. 
He  spares  the  upholsterer  trouble  to  procure 
Chattels ;   himself  is  his  own  furniture, 
And  his  sole  riches.     Wheresoe'er  he  roam, 
Knock  when  you  will,  he's  sure  to  be  at  home." 

CHARLES  LAMB. 


170      ANIMAL   LIFE  IN   THE  SEA  AND  ON   THE   LAND. 


XXVII. 
THE  OCTOPUS,  OR  DEVIL-FISH. 

SUB  -  KINGDOM,    MOLLUSCA  :   CLASS,    CEPHALOPODA. 

1.  Cephalopods, — The  only  group  of  mollusks  remaining, 
which  we  will  study  here,  is  that  of  the  cephalopods — a 
group  which  contains  the  most  highly  organized  animals 
among  the  mollusks.  The  name  cephalopod  is  derived 
from  two  Greek  words  which  mean  feet  on  the  head.  To 
this  class  belong  the  octopus,  cuttle-fish,  squid,  etc. 


Fig.  107. — OCTOPUS. 

2.  The  Body  covered  with  a  thick  Mantle, — With  the  ex- 
ception of  one  variety,  cephalopods  have  no  shell.  The 
body  is  covered  with  a  thick  bag  or  mantle,  which  is 


THE  OCJTOPUS,  OR  DEVIL-FISH. 


171 


beautifully  spotted,  and  which  possesses  the  power  of 
changing  its  color.  The  color  is  generally  a  mottled 
brown,  but  when  irritated  it  changes  to  a  reddish  or  pur- 
ple hue,  passing  rapidly  from  one  tint  to  another. 

3.  The  nearest  Approach  to  a  Brain. — The  head  is  dis- 
tinct from  the   rest  of    the  body,  and  contains  nervous 
ganglia,  protected  by  a  cover- 
ing of  cartilage,  which  is  the 
nearest  approach  we  have  seen 
to   the    brain   of   vertebrates. 
The    large    staring    eyes    are 
likewise   more   nearly   perfect 
than  any  we  have  yet  found. 

4.  The  Arms.  —  The    eight 
arms,  or    feet,  whichever    we 
choose  to  call  them,  surround- 
ing the  mouth  are   the   most 
striking  feature  of  the  octopus 
(Fig.  107).      They    sometimes 
grow  to   a  great  length,  and 
they  have  two  rows  of  suckers 

on  the  underside  (Fig.  108),  Fig  108  _SUCKERS  ON  THE  ARM 
which  adhere  so  firmly  to  ob- 
jects within  their  reach  that 
these  animals  are  dangerous 
foes.  Fastening  the  suckers  to 
their  prey,  they  draw  it  down 
to  their  mouths,  and  hold  it  firmly  until  it  is  torn  in  pieces. 

5.  The  Parrot's  Beak. — The  mouth  opens  into  a  throat 
which  is  well  supplied  with  implements  for  crushing  food. 
In  addition  to  a  lingual  ribbon,  here  are  two  large  horny 
teeth,  which  from  their  shape  are  known  as  the  u  parrot's 
beak"  (Fig.  109). 


OF    A    CUTTLK-FISH. 

a,  hollow  axis  of  the  arm,  contain- 
ing nerve  and  artery;  c,  cellular 
tissue;  d,  radiating  fibres;  praised 
margin  of  the  disk  around  the  ap- 
erture /,  gr,  which  contains  a  re- 
tractile membrane,  or  "piston,"  i. 


172      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN  THE  SEA  AND  ON   THE   LANf). 


Fig.  109. — THE  PARROT'S  BEAK. 


6.  The  Funnel. — The  mantle  is  open  at  the  neck,  and  ex- 
pands to  admit  water  to  a  chamber  lying  within,  which 
contains  the  gills.  The  rim  of  the  mantle  then  closes  by 

powerful  muscles, 
and  the  body  con- 
tracts, and  forces  the 
water  out  in  a  jet 
through  the  "fun- 
nel." This  funnel  is 
a  tube  provided  with 
a  valve  which  closes 
after  the  water  has 
escaped,  and  allows 
no  water  to  enter 
through  it  from  the 
outside. 

7.  The  Ink-bag.— 

Within  the  body  is  a  sac  containing  an  ink  -  like  fluid 
which  these  animals  throw  out  also  from  the  funnel  when 
they  are  alarmed.  The  surrounding  water  is  thus  discol- 
ored with  a  dense  black  cloud,  and  the  octopods  are  en- 
abled to  escape  from  their  enemies.  This  ink  is  some- 
times used  in  water -color  painting  under  the  names  of 
sepia  and  India-ink.  The  contents  of  the  ink-bags  ob- 
tained from  fossil  octopods  have  sometimes  been  dis- 
solved, and  still  they  yield  sepia  of  a  good  quality. 

8.  Octopods  found  in  most  Seas. — Octopods  are  found  in 
most  seas,  those  living  in  mid-ocean  sometimes  being  very 
large.  Within  the  last  few  years  some  large  specimens 
have  been  taken  on  the  Newfoundland  coast.  Wonderful 
stories  are  told  of  octopods,  but  it  is  difficult  to  know  how 
much  of  fable  may  have  been  interwoven  with  the  truth. 
We  at  least  know  that  they  are  active  creatures,  often 


THE   OCTOPUS,  OR  DEVIL-FISH. 


173 


jumping  out  of  the  water,  and  that  they  have  a  strange 
fashion  of  swimming  backward. 

9.  Manner  of  Propelling  Themselves. — Their  only  means 
of  propelling  themselves  is  by  forcing  water  out  *of  the 
funnel,  the  successive  jets  driving  them  backward,  while 
the  long  arms  trail  uselessly  after  them.     They  also  walk 
head-downward,  with  the  rounded  body  above. 

10.  Destroying  Life. — They  spend  much  of  the  time  part- 
ly concealed  by  the  rocks, 

with  their  arms  floating 
round  in  search  of  some- 
thing to  kill,  for  they  are 
extremely  greedy,  destroy- 
ing large  numbers  of  fishes, 
crabs,  and  mollusks.  Like 
the  tiger,  they  seem  to  find 
pleasure  in  killing  more  than 
they  need  to  eat.  Their  hid- 
ing-places are  sometimes  dis- 
covered by  the  number  of 
dead  shells  scattered  about. 
Octopods  likewise  are  de- 
stroyed in  large  numbers  by 
porpoises  and  whales. 

11.  The  Cuttle-fish.— The 
cuttle-fish  (Fig.  110)  is  much 
like  the  octopus,  but  it  has 
two  tentacles  longer  than  the 
arms,  with  club-shaped  ends. 
There  are  also  narrow  fins  at 
the  side  of  the  body,  and  the 

mantle  is  supported  on  the  inside  by  a  thin  plate  which 
is  known  as  the  cuttle-fish  bone.      Cuttle-fish  bones  are 


110. — CUTTLE  -  FISH  (ONE  -  FIFTH 
NATURAL  SIZE). 


174:      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 


commonly  used  in  bird-cages.  If  you  examine  one  care- 
fully you  will  find  it  has  no  resemblance  to  true  bone, 
being  formed  of  layers,  as  shells  are,  with  a  hard  cover- 
ing. As  the  captive  bird  pecks  at  this  it  obtains  small 
particles  of  lime,  which  substance  is  needed  for  forming 
its  bones. 

12.  Cuttle-fishes  do  not  lie  concealed  in  caves  waiting 

for  their  prey,  but  they  come 
out  boldly,  and  give  their 
victims  a  fair  chance. 

13.  The  Eggs  in  Bunches.— 
The  octopus  and  cuttle-fish 
both  attach  their  eggs  by  a 
cement  secreted  within  their 
bodies   to    branches  of   sea- 
weed, where  they  hang  like 
bunches  of  grapes.  The  moth- 
er sometimes  selects  a  snug 
retreat  in  the  rocks  for  rais- 
ing  her  young  family,  and 
barricading  the  entrance  with 
pieces  of  rock  or  piles  of  shell, 
she  allows  no  one  to  enter. 

14.  She  is  said  to  examine 
her  eggs  and  rub  them,  some- 
times   syringing   them   with 
her  funnel,  as  if  to  keep  off 

parasites.  In  about  five  weeks  the  eggs  are  hatched.  The 
little  creatures  are  about  the  size  of  a  grain  of  rice,  with 
eight  points  from  which  the  arms  will  grow,  and  they 
already  have  the  power  of  changing  their  color.  The 
mother  is  much  exhausted  after  her  long  confinement,  her 
nourishment  the  while  not  having  been  sufficient. 


Fig.  111. — THE  SQUID. 


THE   OCTOPUS,  OR   DEVIL-FISH. 


175 


15.  Used  as  Food. — In  many  countries  these  evil -looking 
creatures  are  used  for  food.     They  are  highly  esteemed 
on  the  shores  of  the  Black 

Sea,  for,  as  they  are  neither 
meat  nor  fish,  they  can  be  eat- 
en during  the  long  fasts  of 
the  Greek  Church. 

16.  In  Southern  Italy  the 
octopus  is  taken  alive  to  mar- 
ket, and   displayed   in   large 
tubs    filled    with    sea -water. 
Here  the  animals  writhe  and 
twist  their  arms,  and  display 
their   dread    suckers.      They 
all  look  straight  in  front  of 
them  with  their  great  eyes, 

and  at  frequent  intervals  dis-  Fig.  112.— EGG-CLUSTER  OF  SQUID. 
charge  water  violently  from 

their  funnels  in  short,  quick  jerks.  When  a  purchaser 
has  selected  one,  the  salesman  seizes  the  octopus  by  the 
neck,  and  kills  it  by  a  skilful  twist. 

17.  The  Squid. — The  squid  (Fig.  m)  is  another  one  of 
the  cephalopods.     It  is  found  in  great  numbers  along  the 
sea -shore,  and  is  very  generally  used  for  bait  in   cod- 
fishing. 

18.  The  eggs   of  the  squid  are   enclosed  within  pod- 
shaped  masses  of  stiff  jelly,  many  of  which  are  clustered 
together  in  one  bunch.     These  pod-shaped  pieces  of  jelly 
are  sufficiently  transparent  to  show  the  presence  of  many 
small  eggs  when  held  up  to  the  light. 


176      ANIMAL   LIFE  IN  THE  SEA  AND  ON  THE   LAND. 


XXVIII. 

THE  ARGONAUT. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  MOLLUSCA  :   CLASS,  CEPHALOPODA. 

1.  The  Argonaut. — The  argonaut,  or  paper-nautilus,  is 
regarded  as  one  of  the  most  beautiful  objects  in  the  ocean. 
Who  would  have  thought  of  finding  a  celebrated  beauty 
in  the  same  family  with  the  disagreeable  octopus  !    The 
charm  must  certainly  be  due  to  that  lovely  white  shell 
which  is  prettily  ribbed  and  fluted,  and  so  transparent  as 
to  show  the  varying  silver  and  rose  tints  of  the  body 
underneath. 

2.  Resemblance  to  the  Octopus. — Notwithstanding  these 
attractions,  our  eyes  are  now  sufficiently  trained  to  find  in 
the  argonaut  many  points  of  resemblance  to  the  octopus. 
There  are  the  unmistakable  suckers  on  the  arms,  the  great 
wide-awake  eyes,  and  the  curious  funnel  projecting  be- 
yond the  shell  just  below  them. 

3.  The  Shell  secreted  by  the  broad  Arm.— In  addition  to 
these,  there  are  many  new  points  of  interest.     You  will 
notice  in  the  upper  figure  of  this  picture  that  the  two 
hinder  arms  are  spread  out  into  flat,  sail-like  membranes, 
which  here  only  partly  cover  the  shell.     They  may,  how- 
ever, be  extended  so  as  to  cover  it  entirely.     Indeed,  the 
shell  has  been  secreted  by  these  broad  membranes,  and 
if  it  is  broken  in  any  way,  the  injuries  are  soon  repaired 
by  new  shelly  matter  deposited  just  where  it  is  needed. 


Fig.  113. — ARGONAUTS. 


18 


THE   ARGONAUT.  179 

4.  The  Body  not  fastened  to  the  Shell.— Although  the 
argonaut  lives  in  this  shell,  its  body  is  nowhere  fastened 
to  it,  neither  does  it  lit  the  shell  and  fill  it  up,  as  other 
mollusks  do.     It  merely  sits  in  the  graceful  shell  as  in  a 
boat,  and  holds  on  by  its  webbed  arms. 

5.  Fanciful  Stories. — Fanciful  stories  have  been  told  of 
the  argonauts,  and  persons  were  led  to  believe  that  they 
sailed  over  the  waves,  with  their  webbed  arms  held  aloft 
as  sails  to  catch  the  breezes,  and  that  their  straight  arms 
were  used  as  oars.     So  far  from  sailing  in  this  fantastic 
fashion,  the   argonaut  rarely  comes  to  the   surface,  but 
passes  its  days  in  deep  water  or  upon  the  bottom  of  the 
ocean.    Here  it  crawls  head-downward,  with  its  shell  over 
its  back,  using  its  arms  in  place  of  feet. 

6.  In  reality  the  argonaut  swims  jus.t  as  its  relatives  do 
—by  squirting  itself  backward.     Gathering  the  arms  to- 
gether in  a  straight  line,  as  shown  near  the  middle  of 
Fig.  113,  it  takes  in  sea-water  under  the  mantle,  and  for- 
cibly expels  it  from  the  funnel. 

7.  How  snugly  the  lowest  one  in  the  picture  has  tucked 
itself  away  in  the  shell  !     Still,  it  has  an  eye  for  all  that 
goes  on  around  it. 

8.  A  Dainty  Shell  for  a  Cradle. — The  charming  part  of 
our  story  has  yet  to  be  told,  for  you  must  know  that  these 
dainty  shells  are  merely  nests,  with  which  the  females  are 
provided  to  protect  themselves  and  the  bunches  of  eggs 
which  they  carry.     The  young  ones  are  hatched  in  this 
lovely  floating  cradle,  and  are  thus  shielded  from  many 
dangers  to  which  they  would  be  exposed  in  the  open  sea. 
In  the  middle  figure  you  may  see  the  large  bunch  of  eggs 
on  top  of  the  shell  and  partly  concealed  by  the  body  of 
the  parent. 

9.  The  Male  Argonaut. — The  male  argonaut  is  very  un- 


180      ANIMAL    LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 

like  the  female.  Not  being  more  than  an  inch  in  length, 
and  having  no  shell,  it  was  not  recognized  until  quite  re- 
cently as  the  mate  of  the  handsome  paper-nautilus. 

10.  Habits  Unknown.  —  These  animals  live  in  tropical 
seas,  but  their  shells  have  sometimes  been  washed  on  our 
own  shores.     It  is  impossible  to  know  the  habits  of  such 
deep-sea  dwellers,  since  their  haunts  are  completely  hid- 
den from  our  view. 

11.  Argonauts  have  interested  thoughtful  men  from  a 
very  ancient  date.     Their  appearance  on  the  water  was 
welcomed  as  an  indication  of  fine  weather,  and  one  of  the 
Greek  poets  long  ago  wrote,  "  O  fish,  justly  dear  to  navi- 
gators !  thy  presence  announces  winds  soft  and  friendly ; 
thou  bringest  the  calm,  and  thou  art  the  sign  of  it." 


THE   PEARLY   NAUTILUS.  181 


XXIX. 
THE  PEARLY  NAUTILUS. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  MOLLUSCA  :  CLASS,  CEPHALOPODA. 

1.  The  Pearly  Nautilus. — The  most  interesting  of  all  the 
cephalopods  is  perhaps  the  pearly  nautilus.     Unlike  other 
members  of  its  class,  this  animal  is  supplied  with  a  true 
external   shell,  which   is   divided   into    many  chambers  ; 
hence,  it  is  often  called  the  "  chambered  nautilus." 

2.  The  Chambered  Shell. — In  its  natural  condition  the 
outside  of  the  shell   resembles   white   porcelain    streaked 
with  reddish-brown  stripes.     The  nautilus   shells  usually 
seen  in  cabinet  collections  have  been  polished ;  this  out- 
side striped  coating  has  thus  been  removed,  and  nothing 
remains  but  the  lustrous  pearl  underneath. 

3.  The  shell  is  elegantly  shaped  and  proportioned,  but 
gives  no  hint  of  the  curious  arrangement  inside  until  it 
is  cut  open.     It  is  then  found  to  contain  many  chambers 
partitioned  off  by  curved,  pearly  plates  which  you  can 
readily  see  in  Fig.  114.     The  animal  always  occupies  the 
outer   and  larger  chamber,  as  here  represented,  retiring 
from  it  in  its  turn  and  walling  it  up  as  the  shell  increases 
in  size  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  growing  body. 

4.  In  this  way  each  chamber  has  been  successively  the 
home  of  the  nautilus,  and  has  been  abandoned  when  it 
ceased  to  be  desirable. 


182      ANIMAL  LIFE   IN  THE   SEA  AND   ON  THE   LAND. 

"  Year  after  year  beheld  the  silent  toil 

That  spread  his  lustrous  coil ; 
Still,  as  the  spiral  grew, 
He  left  the  past  year's  dwelling  for  the  new, 
Stole  with  soft  step  its  shining  archway  through, 

Built  up  its  idle  door, 

Stretched  in  his  last-found  home,  and  knew  the  old  no  more." 

5.  The  Siphuncle. —  There  is  a  curious  tube,  or  "si- 
phuncle,"  extending  from  the  body  through  all  the  cham- 
bers to  the  end  of  the  coil.  Its  use  is  not  positively  known, 
although  it  may  be  instrumental  in  compressing  the  gas 


Fig.  114. — PEARLY  NAUTILUS,  WITH  SHELL  CUT  OPEN 
(ONE-HALF  NATURAL  SIZE). 

with  which  the  chambers  are  probably  filled,  thus  affect- 
ing the  weight  of  the  shell,  and  enabling  the  animal  to 
rise  or  sink  in  the  water  when  it  wishes. 

6.  Means  of  Swimming. — Our  beautiful  nautilus  has  dis- 
covered no  more  graceful  means  of  swimming  than  by  ex- 


THE    PEAIJLY    NAUTILUS.  183 

pelling  water  from  the  funnel,  as  others  of  its  family  do, 
but  it  has  not  their  peculiarity  of  squirting  ink,  insomuch 
as  it  possesses  no  ink-bag. 

7.  The  Organs. — It  has  many  short  arms,  which  are  high- 
ly sensitive,  but  which  have  none  of  the  suckers  so  remark- 
able in  the  cuttle-fish.     The  mantle  is  thickened  into  a 
leathery  fold  or  hood  over  the  head,  which  closes  the  shell 
when  the  animal  retires  within  it. 

8.  The  mouth  is  surrounded  by  a  fleshy  lip  and  several 
additional  folds,  and  it  opens  into  a  cavity  where  the  par- 
rot's beak  and  the  lingual  ribbon  are  situated.     The  eyes 
are  attached  by  short  stalks  to  the  sides  of  the  head. 

9.  Living  Specimens  rare. — Although  nautilus  shells  are 
quite  common,  only  a  few  specimens  of  the  animal  have 
ever  been  obtained  ;  from  which  fact  it  is  inferred  that 
the  nautilus  lives  only  at  great  depths,  in  tropical  regions 
of  the  Pacific  and  Indian  oceans.    Unfortunately,  we  know 
almost  nothing  of  its  habits. 

10.  The  Last  of  its  Race. — The  nautilus  is  especially  in- 
teresting, since  it  is  the  last  member  of  a  once  numerous 
race  of  four-gilled  cephalopods  with 

external  shells,  which  formerly  oc- 
cupied the  seas.  Entire  families 
have  ceased  to  exist,  and  are  known 
to  us  only  by  fossil  remains,  which 
are  very  abundant  in  the  rocks, 
more  than  two  thousand  species 
being  known. 

1 1 .  Ammonites.—  Among  the  most 

Fig.  115.— AMMONITE. 

interesting  or  these  are  the  ammon- 
ites, one  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  115.    Their  chambered 
shells  are  much  like  nautilus  shells,  but  instead  of  having 
partitions  with  plain  edges,  the  partitions  are  folded  and 


184      ANIMAL    LIFE   IN    THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

crinkled,  forming  curious  patterns  on  the  outside  of  the 
shell.  Ammonites  evidently  lived  in  the  deep  sea.  They 
are  found  of  all  sizes,  varying  from  an  inch  to  more  than 
a  yard  in  diameter. 

12.  These  ancient  four-gilled  forms  have  been  succeeded 
by  the  two-gilled  cephalopods  (such  as  the  octopus  and  cut- 
tle-fish) without  shells,  which  now  monopolize  the  ocean. 
The  beautiful  nautilus  has  gradually  decreased  in  num- 
bers, and  will  probably  become  extinct  also,  as  the  rest  of 
its  family  have  done. 


BACKBONED    ANIMALS.  185 


XXX. 
BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 

SUB-KINGDOM,    VERTEBRATA. 

1.  The  Backboned  Family. — An  important  point  in  our 
studies  is  now  reached,  and  we  are  about  to  enter  upon 
that  great  sub-kingdom  which  is  spoken  of  as  the  "  back- 
boned family."    The  animals  comprised  in  this  large  fam- 
ily differ  so  greatly  from  the  Radiates,  Articulates,  and 
Mollusks,  which  we   have  been   studying,  that  it  seems 
necessary  to  pause  here  and  examine  some  of  their  pecu- 
liarities. 

2.  We  shall  find  among  the  backboned  animals  a  great 
variety  of  forms  and  habits  ;  still,  we  can  trace  in  their 
physical  structure  an  unbroken  se- 
ries, and  passing  regularly  up  from 

the  lower  forms  of  this  type,  we 
shall  gradually  approach  animals 
that  are  highly  endowed  with  in- 
telligence and  strength.  Fishes,  we 
know,  live  only  in  the  water.  So  Kg.116.JA  VERTEBRA. 
also  do  frogs  and  toads  during  the  a>  8pinal  cana] 

early  part  of  their  lives,  but  after 

they  become  fully  matured  they  mostly  live  on  the  land, 
and  have  many  points  of  resemblance  to  reptiles.  In 
turn,  the  reptiles  lead  on  to  birds,  which,  by  their  pecul- 
iar strength  and  lightness,  are  fitted  to  live  almost  wholly 


186      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

in  the  air.     Last  of  all  are  the  mammals,  whose  superior 
endowments  crown  the  list. 


3.  The  Spinal  Column. — The  most  important  peculiarity 
of  this  family  is  that  the  greater  part  of  its  members 
possess  a  "  backbone,"  or,  more  properly  speaking,  a  spinal 


BACKBONED  ANIMALS. 


187 


column,  which  is  composed  of  a  chain  of  small  bones  or 
vertebrae.  Owing  to  this  fact,  the  name  Vertebrata  has 
been  given  to  the  sub-kingdom.  The  vertebras  are  united 
side  by  side  by  means  of  ligaments,  and  as  each  vertebra 
has  an  opening  through  its  centre,  as 
is  shown  at  «,  in  Fig.  116,  the  chain 
forms  a  continuous  canal  throughout 
the  entire  length  of  the  spinal  column. 

4.  The  two  Tubes 'of  Vertebrates. —In 
the  spinal  canal,  which  we  have  just  de- 
scribed, lies  the  spinal  cord,  safely  en- 
cased in  bone,  and  connecting  with  the 
brain  through  an  opening  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  skull.     You  will  observe, 
therefore,  that  the  brain  and  the  spinal 
cord,  the  large  masses  of  the  nervous 
system,  are  shut  off  by  a  special  tube 
from  other  parts  of  the  body. 

5.  Carrying   this   idea   yet  further, 
we  will  now  consider  the  main  cavity 
of  the  body,  which  (as  in  the  lion,  Fig. 
117)  is  formed  by  the  ribs,  the  back- 
bone, and  the  breastbone,  as  a  second 
tube  for  containing  the  heart,  lungs, 
stomach,  etc. 

6.  The  distinction  between  Vertebrates 
and  Invertebrates. — This  especial  pro- 
vision for  the   nervous  system  is  the 
great  distinction  between  vertebrates 
and  those  animals  having  no  spinal  col- 
umn, which  are  called  invertebrates.     The  body  of  inver- 
tebrates may  be  looked  upon  as  one  single  tube,  in  which 
the  nervous  system  is  not  separated  from  other  organs  ; 


Fig.  118.— HUMAN 
BRAIN  AND  SPI- 
NAL CORD  SEND- 
ING OFF  NERVES. 


188      ANlMAt,   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA  AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

whereas,  the  body  of  vertebrates  consists  of  two  distinct 
tubes,  one  for  the  large,  nervous  masses,  the  other  for  the 
organs  of  digestion,  circulation,  etc. 

7.  The  Nervous  System.  — The  brain,  lying  within  the 
skull,  and  the  spinal  cord  proceeding  from  it,  are  the  great 
centres  which  give  rise  to  the  symmetrical  pairs  of  nerves 
passing  to  all  parts  of  the  body  (Fig.  118).  These  nerve- 


Fig.  119. — ARM  AND  LEG  OF  A  MAN  AS  THEY  ARE  SEEN  WHEN  ON  ALL-FODRS. 

S,  scapula;  I,  ilium,  or  ehinbone  of  pelvis;  H,  humerus  ;  F,  femur;  O,  olecranon, 
or  tip  of  the  elbow;  P,  patella;  U,  ulna;  T,  tibia;  R,  radius;  Fi,  fibula;  Po, 
pollex,  or  thumb ;  Ha,  hallex,  or  great  toe. 

centres  are,  as  we  have  seen,  well  protected  by  the  won- 
derful chain  of  bones  constituting  the  spinal  column.  In 
addition  to  this  arrangement,  there  is  a  series  of  nerves 
supplied  to  the  thorax  and  abdomen  known  as  the  sym- 
pathetic nerves,  which  regulate  the  digestion,  respiration, 
and  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 

8.  The  Skull. — That  strong,  bony  box  which  we  call  the 


BACKBONED   ANIMALS. 


189 


skull  not  only  contains  the  brain,  but  it  also  protects  the 
delicate  organs  of  sight  and  of  hearing,  as  well  as  those 
of  taste  and  smell,  all  of  which  are  lodged  in  its  bony 
cavities. 

9.  The  Skeleton. — Another  peculiarity  of  vertebrates  is 
that  they  possess  a  jointed  skeleton  which  is  always  in- 
ternal.    The  hard  bones  composing  this  skeleton  are  not 
dead  and  lifeless,  as  they  look  to  be,  but  they  undergo  a 
continual  change,  since  they  are  nourished  by  the  blood 
which,    in    its    circulation 

through  the  bony  tissues, 
carries  off  all  the  waste 
particles,  and  deposits  new 
materials  for  their  growth 
and  repair. 

10.  The  Limbs. — Animals 
of  this  family  never  have 
more    than    two    pairs    of 
limbs,  and  these  are  joint- 
ed and  turned  away  from 
the  back.    By  far  the  great- 
er  number  of   vertebrates 
are  supplied  with  both  pairs 

of  limbs ;  still  there  are  some  animals,  as  for  instance  the 
whale,  in  which  the  limbs  are  only  partially  developed, 
and  others  again,  like  the  snake,  in  which  the  limbs  are 
altogether  wanting. 

11.  As  the  limbs  of  different  animals  are  employed  for 
a  great  variety  of  purposes,  we  shall  find  that  they  are 
curiously  modified  to  serve  these  various  uses,  yet  a  simi- 
larity may  be  observed  in  the  structure  of  all.     Thus  the 
fore -legs  of  quadrupeds  are  represented  by  the  arms  of 
man,  by  the  wings  of  a  bird,  and  by  the  swimming-pad- 


Fig.  120. — HIND-LEG  OP  ALLIGATOR 
AND  FORE-LEG  OF  SEAL. 

S,  scapula ;  I,  ilium,  or  shiiibone  of  pel- 
vis ;  H,  humerus  ;  F,  femur ;  O,  olecra- 
non,  or  tip  of  the  elbow;  U,  ulna;  T, 
tibia ;  R,  radius ;  Fi,  fibula ;  Po,  pollex, 
or  thumb. 


190     ANIMAL    LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 


dies  of  a  whale.  If  you  should  compare  the  arm  of  a 
man  with  the  leg  of  a  seal  or  the  wing  of  a  bat,  as  repre- 
sented in  the  accompanying  figures,  you  will  discover  a 
close  resemblance  between  them. 

12.  The  Digestion  of  the  Food. — All  vertebrates  have  a 
mouth,  which  generally  is  furnished  with  teeth.  The  food 
is  mostly  cut  and  divided  in  the  mouth  and  mixed  with 

saliva,  after  which  it  is  swal- 
lowed and  digested,  and  the 
nutritious  portions  are  ab- 
sorbed into  the  blood. 

13.  The  Heart.— The  heart 
of   all   vertebrates   contains 
at  least  two  chambers,  and  in 
the  higher  classes  of  animals 
it  has  four  distinct  chambers. 
These  chambers  are  supplied 
with  valves  at  their  openings 
which  allow  the  blood  to  pass 
through,  but  which  close  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  prevent 
its  return  in  the  opposite  di- 
rection. 

1 4.  Circulation  of  the  Blood. 
— Dr.  Harvey,  in  1619,  was 

the  first  person  that  taught  the  great  fact  of  the  circula- 
tion of  the  blood,  and  it  is  now  so  well  understood  as  to 
attract  but  little  attention.  We  know  that  the  blood  of 
living  animals  is  continually  flowing  to  every  part  of  the 
body  through  closed  tubes,  or  blood-vessels,  as  they  are 
called,  the  arteries  being  employed  in  carrying  it  from 
the  heart,  and  the  veins  in  returning  it  again. 

15.  The  Blood.  —  We  are  accustomed  to  think  of  the 


Fig.  121. — FORE  AND  HIND  LKG  OK 
A  TAPIR. 

S,  scapula ;  I,  ilium,  or  shiubone  of 
pelvis;  H,  humerns;  F,  femur;  O, 
olecranon,  or  tip  of  the  elbow ;  P,  pa- 
tella ;  U,  ulna ;  T,  tibia ;  R,  radius ; 
Fi,  fibula. 


BACKBONED   ANIMALS. 


191 


blood  simply  as  a  red  fluid,  whereas,  upon  examination, 
it  is  found  to  be  a  clear  liquid,  almost  without  color,  in 
which  floats  a  multi- 
tude of  minute  par- 
ticles or  "  corpuscles," 
so  exceedingly  small 
that  they  can  be  dis- 
covered only  with  a 
powerful  microscope. 
Some  of  these  corpus- 
cles are  red,  others 
are  white.  The  red 
corpuscles  have  a  ten- 
dency to  run  togeth- 
er into  piles  like  but- 
tons on  a  string,  and 
they  are  so  numer- 
ous as  to  tinge  the  blood  with  their  red  color  (Fig.  122). 
16.  The  Breathing  of  Vertebrates— We  shall  find  a  great 
difference  among  these  animals  with  regard  to  their  man- 
ner of  receiving  a  supply  of  fresh  air.  Fishes  and  am- 
phibious animals  are  furnished  with  gills,  and  derive  their 
supply  of  air  from  the  water,  but  the  higher  vertebrates 
breathe  by  true  lungs,  and  the  process  of  airing  the  blood 
is  greatly  assisted  by  the  action  of  the  skin. 


Fig.  122. — BLOOD  CORPUSCLES  OP  MAN. 


192      ANIMAL    LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON    THE    LAND. 


XXXI. 
FISHES. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  VERTEBRATA  :    CLASS,  PISCES. 

1.  Fishes. — It  is  not  an  easy  thing  to  study  the  every- 
day life  of  fishes.     Living  as  they  do  in  the  water,  and 
keeping  out  of  sight,  our  only  hope  of  observing  them  is 
from  an  occasional  glimpse,  which  gives  us  little  oppor- 
tunity to  learn  their  habits  and  peculiarities.     Preserved 
specimens  are  of  no  great  help ;  they  serve,  however,  to 
remind  us  that  much  of  the  charm  of  fishes  lies  in  the 
grace  of  their  movements  and  in  the  delicate  lustre  which 
plays  upon  their  sides  as  they  glide  through  the  water, 
but  which  is  lost  soon  after  death. 

2.  Fishes  are  well  adapted  to  Swimming. — The  shape  of 
fishes  is  such  as  to  admit  of  their  swimming  easily  and 
smoothly  through  the  water  with  the  least  possible  fric- 
tion.     They   are   further   aided   in   swimming   by   their 
smooth,  slimy  coating,  which  generally  consists  of  scales 
overlapping  one  another  like  tiles  on  a  roof. 

3.  Dr.  Hartwig  says  of  fishes  :  "  We  wisely  endeavor  to 
imitate  this  peculiar  form  in  the  construction  of  our  ships, 
yet  the  rapidity  with  which  the  fastest  clipper  cleaves  the 
waters  is  nothing  to  the  velocity  of  an  animal  formed  to 
reside  in  that  element.      The  flight  of  an  arrow  is  not 
more  rapid  than  the  darting  of  a  tunny,  a  salmon,  or  a 
gilt -head  through  the  water.     Every  part  of  the  body 


.Kig.  123. — .NEST  OF  THE  SUN-FISH. 


14 


FISHES.  195 

seems  exerted  in  this  despatch :  the  fins,  the  tail,  and  the 
motion  of  the  whole  backbone  assist  progression ;  and  it 
is  to  this  admirable  flexibility  of  body,  which  mocks  the 
efforts  of  art,  that  fishes  owe  the  astonishing  rapidity  of 
their  movements." 

4.  The  Vertebrae. — On  examining  the  backbone  of  a  fish, 
you  will  find  it  to  consist  of  circular  vertebrae,  which  are 
concave  at  each  end.  The  space  between  the  vertebrae  is 
filled  with  a  jelly-like  substance,  giving  great  freedom  of 
motion.  The  ribs  are  not  much  curved,  and  are  attached 
to  the  spinal  column  at  one  end. 


Fig.  124. — THE  FINS  OF  A  FISH  (PIKE-PERCH). 

5.  The  Fins. — Notice  the  two  kinds  of  fins  which  are 
represented  in  Fig.  124.     The  *'  paired  fins,"  which  are  ar- 
ranged on  opposite  sides  of  the  body,  are  the  true  limbs 
of  the  fish.    Those  near  the  gills,  named  the  pectoral  fins, 
represent  the  fore  limbs  of  quadrupeds,  while  the  ventral 
fins,  which  are  lower  down,  and  which  may  sometimes  be 
wanting,  represent  the  hind  limbs.     Besides  these  paired 
fins  there  are  other  single  fins  upon  the  middle  of  the 
back  and  underneath  the  body. 

6.  The  fins  are  chiefly  used  to  balance  the  fish  in  an  up- 
right position,  while  the  principal  swimming  organ  is  the 


196      ANIMAL    LIFE    IN   THE   SEA    AND    ON   THE    LAND. 

tail,  which  is  set  vertically  at  the  end  of  the  spine,  so  as 
to  work  from  side  to  side. 

7.  The  Swim  -  bladder.  —  As  the  weight  of  the  body  is 
greater  than  that  of  the   surrounding  water,  most  fishes 
are  supplied  with  a  "swim-bladder"  (Fig.  125,  vri)  which 
connects  with  the  oesophagus,  and  which,  being  filled  with 
air,  assists  the  fish  to  rise  or  sink  in  the  water. 

8.  The  Gills. — Fishes'  gills  are  leaf-like  bodies  lying  in 
cavities  on  each  side  of  the  neck  (Fig.  125,  6r),  and  cov- 
ered by  plates  called  gill- covers;  they  may  often  be  seen 
gently  moving  when  a  fish  is  in  its  native  element.    You 
may  also  notice  the  gills  in  fishes  that  have  been  arranged 
on  a  string  for  convenience  in  carrying;  in  such  cases  it 
is  customary  to  put  the  string  through  the  "gill-slit." 

9.  The  Manner  of  Breathing. — The  breathing  of  fishes  is 
a  very  simple  process.     All  the  air  they  require  is  con- 
tained in  the  water,  which  enters  freely  at  the  mouth, 
passes  over  the  gills,  and  escapes  at  the  gill-slit.     The 
blood  continually  circulating  through  the  gills  absorbs 
oxygen   from    the    water    and   becomes    purified.      This 
breathing  from  water  resembles  the  act  of  swallowing, 
with  the  important  difference  that  the  water  passes  to  the 
gills,  and  not  to  the  stomach. 

10.  We  sometimes  say,  when  a  fish  is  taken  out  of  the 
river,  that  it  dies  for  want  of  water.     Strictly  speaking,  it 
would  be  more  correct  to  say  that  it  dies  for  want  of  air. 
Surrounded  as  it  is  by  air,  the  fish  can  make  no  use  of  it, 
because  it  is  not  mixed  with  water,  and  the  poor  creat- 
ure flounces  and  throws  itself  uneasily  about  as  it  slowly 
suffocates. 

11.  Circulation  of  the  Blood. — The  heart  of  fishes  has  but 
two  cavities,  an  auricle  and  a  ventricle,  which  are  shown 
in  the  ideal  plan  of  the  circulation  of  fishes  (Fig.  126),  at 


FISHES. 


197 


Fig.  125. — ANATOMY  OF  THK  CARP. 

br,  branchiae,  or  gill-openings;  c,  heart;  /,  liver;  tm,  vn',  swimming-bladder; 
ci,  intestinal  canal;  o,  ovarium;  u,  ureter;  a,  anus;  o',  genital  opening; 
u't  opening  of  ureter.  The  side-view  shows  the  disposition  of  the  muscles  in 
vertical  flakes. 


198      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


a  and  b.  Blood,  after  passing  from  the  auricle  to  the 
ventricle,  is  sent  to  the  gills  to  be  purified.  It  then  flows 

to  all  parts  of  the  body  before  returning 

again  to  the  auricle. 

12.  The  Teeth. — Fishes  are  generally 
well  supplied  with  teeth,  since  they  grow 
not  only  on  the  upper  and  lower  jaw, 
but  are  sometimes  found  on  the  tongue 
and  the  throat.      They  have  also  large 
eyes  without  any  lids.     They  have  no 
external  ears,  yet  they  evidently  notice 
sounds.      Fishermen  are  aware  of  this 
fact,  consequently  they  carry  on  their 
sport  in  profound  silence,  and  the  boys 
and  girls   who   accompany   them  must 
leave  their  fun  and  laughter  until  the 
fishing  is  over. 

13.  Their  Enemies, — Although  fishes 
seem  to  have  a  happy  time  as  they  dart 
about  in  the  water,  the  truth  of  the  mat- 
ter is   they  live    in    continual   warfare, 
first  pursuing  their  prey,  and  then,  in 
turn,   flying    from    their    own    enemies. 
They  have  probably  more  to  suffer  in 

this  way  than  other  animals,  for  a  great  many  enemies 
are  waiting  to  pounce  upon  them,  their  eggs,  and  their 
young  ones. 

14.  Flying-fishes,  —  Flying-fishes  (Fig.  127)  often  leap 
into  the  air  in  large  companies  to  escape  pursuit,  and 
their  blue  bodies  and  silvery  wings  glisten  prettily  in  the 
sunlight.  Even  here  they  sometimes  meet  with  new  dan- 
gers from  the  greedy  gulls  and  other  sea-birds,  so  they 
find  safety  neither  in  the  water  nor  in  the  air.  The  large 


CIRCULATION    IN 
FISHES. 

a,  auricle  ;  &,  ventri- 
cle; c,  branchial  ar- 
tery; e,  branchial 
veins,  bringing; 
blood  from  the 
gills,  d,  and  uniting 
in  the  aorta,/;  g, 
vena  cava. 


FISHES.  199 

fins  of  these  fishes  act  like  wings,  and  enable  them  to  take 
long,  low  leaps  into  the  air,  but  they  have  no  power  ol 
raising  themselves  after  having  once  left  the  water. 


Fig.  127. — FLYING-FISH. 

15.  The  Eggs  of  Fishes, — The  eggs   of  fishes  are  tiny 
affairs,  covered  with  a  thin  skin,  so  transparent  that  the 
young  fish  may  be  seen  tumbling  around  inside  for  a  day 
or  two  before  it  is  hatched.     When  the  baby-fishes  first 
leave  the  egg  they  swim  about  for  some  time  with  the 
yolk-bag  hanging  underneath  the  body;  they  take  no  food 
during  this  time,  but  are  nourished  by  the  oily  contents 
of  the  yolk-bag. 

16.  Fishes  produce  large  quantities  of  eggs,  a  single 
cod-roe,  for  instance,  having  been  found  to  contain  nine 
million  eggs ;  but,  as  we  have  just  seen,  a  very  large  pro- 
portion of  the  young  fishes  are  devoured;  being  helpless 
little  creatures,  they  fall   an   easy  prey  to   their  larger 
neighbors. 

17.  Care  of  the  Young. — Generally,  fishes  take  no  care 
oi  their  eggs  or  their  young  ones.     There  are  exceptions, 


200      ANIMAL    LIFE    IN   THE   SEA   AND    ON   THE    LAND. 

however,  to  this  rule,  and  some  kinds  of  fishes  prepare 
nests  in  the  bottom  of  streams,  like  the  sunfish  at  the  be- 
ginning of  this  chapter,  while  the  stickleback  builds  a  true 
nest  of  grass  and  weeds  fastened  together  with  the  sticky 
slime  of  his  own  body  (Fig.  128).  There  is  a  hole  entirely 


Fig.  128. — NEST  OF  THE  STICKLEBACK. 

through  the  nest,  from  one  side  to  the  other,  that  water 
may  constantly  flow  over  the  eggs.  The  male  defends 
the  nest  bravely,  for,  strangely  enough,  among  fishes  it 
falls  to  the  lot  of  the  fathers  to  build  the  nest  and  care 
for  the  young  ones. 


FISHES.  201 

18.  These  families  are  mostly  large,  and  you  may  im- 
agine it  is  no  easy  matter  to  keep  the  active  little  ones  to- 
gether when  swimming  is  so  natural  to  them.    The  attempt 
to  protect  them  leads  to  some  curious  habits;  as,  for  in- 
stance, the  habit  which  many  fishes  possess  of  taking  their 
young  ones  into  their  mouths  for  safety.     In  times  of 
danger  the  father  opens  his  wide  mouth,  and  the  whole 
swarm  rushes  into  the  temporary  asylum  thus  provided. 

19.  The  Sea-horse. — The  sea-horse  (Fig.  129)  has  a  nov- 
el way  of  protecting  his  precious  infants,  for  he  gathers 
them  all  into  a  curi- 
ous pouch  on  the  low- 
er part  of  his  body 

which  is  especial- 
ly provided  for  this 
purpose.  The  young 
fishes  are  taken  into 
the  pouch  as  soon  as 

they  are  hatched,  and  pig  129  _THE  SEA.HORSE. 

snugly  carried  there 
until  they  are  old  enough  to  take  care  of  themselves. 
What  an  odd  sight  it  must  be  when  these  spry  little 
creatures  are  first  turned  out  of  their  cradle  into  the  wide 
ocean,  and  the  whole  swarm  starts  off  to  see  the  world. 

20.  One  would  scarcely  suspect  this  odd-looking  sea- 
horse, with  its  long  snout,  of  being  a  fish.    It  has  a  sin- 
gular habit  of  twisting  its  tail  round  some  branch  of  sea- 
weed and  standing  upright  in  the  water,  as  if  watching  all 
that  takes  place   around  it.     Being  a  poor   swimmer,  it 
often  floats  with  the  sea- weed  for  long  distances  in  this 
erect  position. 

21.  Brilliant  Coloring  of  Tropical  Animals.  —  Tropical 
birds  and  flowers,  we  know,  are  brilliant  in  color;  so  also 


202      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

are  the  inhabitants  of  tropical  oceans.  We  noticed  this 
peculiarity  in  jelly-fishes  and  in  shells,  and  the  same  is 
true  with  regard  to  fishes.  Some  of  the  gayest  fishes  live 
among  the  coral  reefs.  The  warm  waters  in  which  the 
coral  polyps  thrive  and  spread  their  flower-like  tentacles 
to  the  sun  are  further  enlivened  by  glittering  fishes,  which 
glide  in  and  out  among  the  brilliant  coral  branches,  and 
remind  us  of  the  similar  fact  that  dazzling  birds  hover 
over  the  brightest  flowers. 


Fig.  130. — SHARK. 

22.  Selecting  Mates.  —  We  might  suppose  that  these 
lowly  creatures  would  not  pay  much  regard  to  beauty  in 
selecting  their  mates,  but  with  fishes  as  with  every  other 
species  of  animal  there  are  points  of  difference,  which  we 
would  probably  not  notice,  but  which  lead  to  the  selection 
of  certain  individuals  in  preference  to  others.  It  has  been 
observed  that  many  fishes  grow  brilliant  as  the  season  ap- 
proaches for  mating.  All  members  of  the  trout  family, 
for  example,  are  arrayed  in  "their  brightest  colors  during 
spawning-time. 


FISHES.  203 

23.  Sharks, — Very  unlike  the  graceful  fishes  we  have 
been  examining  are  those  tyrants  of  the  ocean,  the  sharks, 
which  are  by  far  the  largest  and  strongest  of  the  fishes.  The 
stout  body  is  well  shown  in  the  picture  (Fig.  130),  and  you 
must  not  fail  to  notice  how  odd  the  tail'  is.  The  top  point  is 
much  longer  than  the  lower  one,  whereas  the  tails  of  most 
fishes  nowadays  are  even.  Sharks  have  several  other  pe- 
culiarities which  cause  them  to  be  classed  with  an  ancient 
race  of  fishes,  few  of  which  are  now  living.  Their  skele- 
tons do  not  consist  of  bone,  but  of  hard  gristle.  Instead 
of  a  scaly  covering,  their  skin  is  set  with  hard  knobs,  and 
the  slits  on  the  side  of  the  neck  take  the  place  of  gills. 


Fig.  131.— EGG  OF  A  SHARK. 

24.  The  Mouth. — The  mouth,  you  see,  is  on  the  under- 
side of  the  head,  and  in  consequence  of  this  arrangement 
sharks  are  usually  obliged  to  turn  over  before  biting.     A 
savage-looking  mouth  it  is,  too,  with  several  rows  of  sharp 
teeth  pointing  backward.     These  teeth  are  never  fixed  in 
sockets,  however,  but  are  merely  imbedded  in  the  lining 
of  the  mouth. 

25.  Sharks'  Eggs.— The  female  shark  lays  but  two  eggs, 
which  are  enclosed  in  leathery,  purse-shaped  cases.     The 


204:      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA  AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

four  corners  of  the  case  are  lengthened  into  tendrils, 
which,  becoming  entangled  in  sea-weed,  hold  the  egg  in 
place.  Part  of  the  case  has  been  removed  from  the  egg 
which  is  shown  in  Fig.  131,  that  we  may  see,  within,  the 
young  fish  with  the  yolk-bag  attached  to  it.  The  empty 
black  cases  of  sharks'  eggs  are  often  picked  up  on  the  sea- 
shore, and  the  sand  which  rattles  out  of  the  hollow  case 
may  assure  you  that  its  former  occupant  has  already 
escaped. 


THE   MIGRATION   OF   FISHES.  205 


XXXII. 
THE  MIGRATION   OF   FISHES. 

1.  Migration  of  Fishes.  —  The  curious  habit  possessed 
by  some  animals  of  moving  in  companies  from  one  place 
to  another  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year  is  spoken  of  as 
"  migration."     We  are  probably  most  familiar  with  the 
migrations  of  birds,  but  many  kinds  of  fishes  yield  to  the 
same  instinct,  and  their  migrations  are  closely  connected 
with  the  production  of  their  eggs. 

2.  A  good  illustration  is  furnished  by  cod,  mackerel, 
and  herring,  all  of  which  select  shallow  water  near  the 
coast  for  depositing  their  eggs,  and  approach  the  shore 
for  this  purpose  in  enormous  shoals,  or  schools,  as  they 
are  called.     In  these  migrations  the  fishes  are  crowded  so 
close  together  as  almost  to  force  one  another  out  of  the 
water,  and  they  are  pursued  by  many  birds  and  marine 
animals,  in  their  efforts  to  escape  from  which  they  are 
often  washed  ashore  in  masses. 

3.  Busy  Times  among  the  Fishermen. — The  arrival  of 
these  schools  upon  the  coasts  causes  busy,  bustling  times 
among  the  fishermen,  whose  boats  may  then  be  seen  hov- 
ering over  them  like  great  flocks  of  sea-birds,  anxious  to 
catch  all  they  can  while  the  harvest  lasts.     Mackerel-fish- 
ing is  thought  to  be  fine  sport,  and  is  performed  under 
full  sail.    The  faster  the  boat  moves  the  better  the  mack- 
erel bite.     They  rush  after  the  bait  as  if  mistaking  it  for 


206      ANIMAL    LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

escaping  prey,  and  as  the  boat  glides  through  the  great 
shoals  of  fish,  all  hands  on  board  are  kept  busy  hauling 
in  the  lines  and  putting  on  fresh  bait. 


i-.'-'^'- 
Fig.  132. — A  FISHING  FLEET. 

4.  The  Migration  of  Salmon. — The  migrations  of  salmon 
are  especially  interesting.  These  fishes,  although  hatched 
in  fresh  water,  pass  the  greater  part  of  their  lives  in  the 
ocean,  and  at  certain  seasons  they  ascend  the  rivers  in 
large  companies  to  deposit  their  eggs.  It  is  believed  that 
they  return  year  after  year  to  the  same  locality ;  so  the 


UNIVERSITY 
THE   MIGRATION   o8  207 


baby  salmon  are  raised  in  the  old  home  of  their  parents, 
who,  nevertheless,  have  become  in  the  mean  time  great 
rovers. 

5.  Efforts  to  reach  the  Source  of  the  River.  —  Young  salm- 
on cannot  live  in  salt  water,  consequently  the  eggs  must 
be  placed  where  there  is  little  danger  of  the  young  fishes 
drifting  out  to  sea,  and  upon  these  journeys  the  impulse 
of  the  parents  is  so  strong  to  reach  the  source  of  the  riv- 
er that  they  seem  determined  to  overcome  all  obstacles. 


Fig.  133.— MALE  SALMON. 

They  even  leap  the  water  -  falls,  and  in  doing  this  they 
display  great  perseverance.  In  leaping  they  throw  the 
body  into  a  curve,  resting  on  the  head  and  tail ;  they  then 
make  a  sudden  spring,  which  is  greatly  aided  by  the  pres- 
sure of  the  tail  upon  the  water.  The  first  attempt  is  of- 
ten unsuccessful,  and  they  fall,  perhaps,  upon  the  rocks  or 
upon  the  bank  of  the  river  ;  not  discouraged  by  the  fail- 
ure, they  struggle  back  to  the  water  and  try  again. 

6.  It  is  now  customary  to  place  fish-stairs  where  there 
is  a  water-fall  or  a  dam  too  high  for  the  salmon  to  mount. 
These  consist  of  a  series  of  steps  made  of  wood  or  stone, 
which  divide  the  height  into  a  succession  of  small  falls. 
The  salmon  soon  learn  to  leap  from  one  step  to  another, 
and  in  this  way  they  reach  the  top  without  difficulty. 

7.  Spawning. — Salmon,  it  is  said,  have  a  leader  on  these 
journeys,  and  follow  him  in  regular  order.     Having  ar- 


208      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN    THE   SEA    AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


1 34.— SALMON-FISHING. 


rived  at  some  suitable  place/they  hollow  out  nests  in  the 
bottom  of  the  stream,  and  deposit  their  eggs,  covering 


THE   MIGRATION    OF    FISHES.  201) 

them   with  gravel,  and  then  taking  no  further  care  of 
them. 

8.  They  eat  little  or  nothing  while  in  fresh  water,  and 
they  reach  the  spawning -ground  bruised  and  exhausted 
by  the  hardships  they  have  endured.  They  therefore  rest 
for  a  while  after  the  spawning  process,  which  occupies 
eight  or  ten  days,  and  then  eagerly  return  to  the  sea. 


Fig.  135. — FEMALE  SALMON  AFTER  SPAWNING. 

9.  The  Young  Salmon. — The  eggs  left  under  the  gravel 
finally  hatch  out,  and  the  young  fishes  work  their  way 
slowly  down  the  river,  to  make  their  first  visit  to  the  sea. 
These  fishes  increase  but  little  in  size  while  in  fresh  water, 
whereas  in  the  ocean  the  rapidity  of  their  growth  is  almost 
incredible. 

10.  The  Shape  and  Color. — Salmon  are  remarkably  grace- 
ful fishes,  and  their  tapering  shape  is  wrell  suited  to  rapid 
motion.     Their  bluish -gray  color  shades  .into  a  silvery- 
white   underneath,  and    the   upper   part   of   the  body  is 
marked  with  black  spots.    As  breeding  season  approaches, 
they  not  only  grow  brilliant  in  color,  but  a  change  still 
more  remarkable  than  this  takes  place  in  the  mouth  of  the 
males.     The  under-jaw  forms  itself  into  a  strong  hook, 
which  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  133.     This  hook  is  used  in  the 
fierce  combats  between  the  males  at  that  season,  and  it  of- 
ten inflicts  deadly  wounds. 

11.  The  Delicacy  of  the  Flesh.— The  pink-tinted  flesh  of 

15 


210      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN  THE   SEA   AND  ON   THE   LAND. 

the  salmon  is  exceedingly  delicate,  and  probably  owes  its 
peculiar  flavor  to  the  eggs  of  echinoderms  and  crustaceans, 
of  which  this  fish  is  especially  fond. 

12.  Salmon -fishing. — Some  of  the  British  and  Norwe- 
gian rivers  contain  celebrated  salmon-leaps,  and  they  are 
visited  by  many  persons  who  enjoy  the  sport  of  salmon- 
fishing.     The  proper  time  for  catching  these  fishes  is  when 
they  ascend  the  rivers  to  spawn,  for  they  are  lean  and 
poor  on  their  return.      At  this  time,  however,  they  are 
ravenously  hungry,  and  prove  a  serious  annoyance  to  an- 
glers, whose  artificial  flies  are  designed  to  attract  only  the 
good  fishes  fresh  from  the  ocean.     Salmon  are  also  caught 
with  nets  and  weirs,  and  with  the  spear. 

13.  The  Cultivation  of  Fishes. — Much  attention  has  re- 
cently been   paid  to   the  cultivation  of   fishes,  which  is 
merely  the  revival  of  an  old  art.     A  "fish -farm"  con- 
sists of  a  set  of  troughs,  standing  each  one  a  little  high- 
er than  the  next  in  the  series,  with  fresh  water  constantly 
flowing  through  them.     In  these  troughs  fish -eggs  are 
hatched  by  artificial  methods,  and  when  the  young  fishes 
have  grown  to  a  suitable  size  they  are  successfully  plant- 
ed in  our  rivers  and  streams.  • 


FROGS   AND  TOADS. 


211 


XXXIII. 
FROGS  AND  TOADS. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  VERTEBKATA  :   CLASS,  AMPHIBIA. 

1.  Frogs. — Most  of  you,  perhaps,  already  know  that  the 
funny  little  tadpoles  in  our  ponds  and  ditches  turn  into 
frogs.     Let   us   notice  the 

remarkable  changes  which 
take  place  before  tadpoles 
can  pass  in  this  way  from 
the  life  of  a  fish  to  that  of 
a  land  animal.  ...- 

2.  Frog  Spawn. — We  will 
begin  with  the  eggs,  which 
are  little  black  specks  not 
larger  than  shot,  scattered 

through  a  lump  of  clear  white  jelly.     This  mass  is  called 

"  frog  spawn,"  and  it  is 
mostly  attached  to  sticks 
or  grass  in  the  water 
near  shore  (Fig.  137).  The 
jelly  holds  the  eggs  to- 
gether, that  they  may  not 
drift  away,  and  it  also 
supplies  nourishment  to 
the  young  animals  when 
Fig.  137.— FROGS'  EGGS.  first  hatched. 


136.— THE  FROG. 


212      ANIMAL    LIFE    IN    THE    SKA    AND    ON   THE   LAND. 

3.  Tadpoles. — If  you  should  gather  some  of  this  frog 
spawn  in  the  spring,  and  put  it  in  a  vessel  of  water  with 
a  few  water-plants,  you  will  have  good  entertainment  for 
several  weeks.  First  the  round  black  specks  begin  to 
lengthen,  then  soon  to  wriggle  about.  Gradually  the  jelly 
mass  disappears,  and  the  young  tadpoles,  with  big  black 
heads,  dart  hither  and  thither,  rapidly  wagging  their  long 
flat  tails  as  they  swim  through  the  water — a  sight  with 
which  all  country  children  are  familiar. 


Fig.  188. — FI:OM   A  TADPOLK   TO  A   FKOU. 

4.  Changes  Tadpoles  undergo, — When  they  grow  a  little 
larger  you  can  discover  feathery  bunches  hanging  at  the 
sides  of  the  head,  as  in  Fig.  138,  a.  These  are  outside  gills.* 
After  a  time  the  wide  mouth  appears,  and  we  find  the 
tadpole  trying  to  nibble  at  objects  around  it.  Little  by 
little  the  outside  gills  shrink  away,  and  the  tadpole  then 
breathes  by  taking  water  in  at  the  mouth  and  allowing 
it  to  run  out  through  slits  in  the  neck.  In  this  way 
the  water  passes  over  internal  gills  the  same  as  in  fishes. 
Indeed,  there  is  but  little  at  this  point  in  a  tadpole's  his- 


FROGS   AND   TOADS.  213 

tory  to  distinguish  it  from  a  fish,  and  it  bears  very  slight 
resemblance  to  the  form  it  is  soon  to  develop. 

5.  Eyes  and  nostrils  now  make  their  appearance  (Fig. 
138,  #),  and  soon  two   little   lumps  come   on  the  sides, 
which  will  grow  some  day  into  hind-legs  (c).     The  front 
legs  do  not  show  until  later,  and  then  the  tadpole  is  well 
supplied  with  limbs,  having  four  legs  and  a  broad  swim- 
ming tail,  as  you  see  at  d. 

6.  The  odd  creature  will  now  be  found  spending  much 
time  at  the  surface,  with  its  mouth  out  of  water,  for  it  is 
trying  still  another  plan  for  breathing. 

7.  While  these  changes  have  been  taking  place  on  the 
outside  of  the  animal,  still  more  important  changes  have 
been  going  on  within  its  body.     Lungs  have  been  grow- 
ing, and  as  the  tadpole  accustoms  itself  to  breathing  with 
the  new  lungs,  the  blood  gradually  changes  its  course,  and 
rushes  to  them  to  be  purified,  instead  of  going  to  the  gills 
as  before.     Consequently,  the  internal  gills  are  no  longer 
needed,  and  they  also  shrink  away. 

8.  The  young  tadpole  had  at  first  a  true  fish's  heart, 
with  only  two  chambers,  but  now  a  third  chamber  grows, 
and  we  have  our  first  instance  of  a  three-celled  heart. 

9.  The  True  Frog. — This  active  little  creature  now  de- 
serves the  name  of  frog  (Fig.  138,  e).     It  swims  with  its 
new  legs,  and  takes  such  long  leaps  that  you  must  keep 
a  close  watch  or  it  will  jump  out  of  your  artificial  pond 
and  escape  further  observation.     As  the  tail  is  no  longer 
needed,  it  shrivels  away  little  by  little,  like  the  gills,  until 
there  is  no  trace  of  it  left. 

10.  When  they  have  reached  this  period,  frogs,  in  their 
native  home,  are  ready  to  hop  boldly  on  shore,  although 
most  of  their  time  is  passed  in  the  water,  perched  on  some 
stick  or  stone.     When  cold  weather  comes,  they  drop  to 


ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 


the  bottom  of  the  pond,  and  spend  the  winter  in  a  torpid 
state. 

11.  Skeleton  of  a  Frog. — Do  you  see  in  the  frog's  skele- 
ton (Fig.  139)  how  much  longer  the  hind -legs  are  than 

the  front  ones  ? 
This  arrangement 
answers  very  well 
for  leaping,  and 
those  long  toes  are 
usually  joined  with 
a  web  to  assist  in 
swimming. 

12.  The  Breath- 
ing.— You  will  also 
notice  that  there 
are  no  ribs,  so  the 
frog  cannot  breathe 
as  we  do.  Our  ribs 

are  raised  each  time  we  breathe,  and  the  air  rushes  in 
through  the  nose  and  mouth  to  fill  the  empty  space  thus 
made  in  our  chests.  But  as  the  frog  has  no  ribs  by  which 
to  enlarge  its  chest,  it  simply  closes  its  lips  and  swallows 
the  air  which  is  in  its  mouth.  A  frog  has  no  other  way 
of  breathing,  and  it  is  possible  to  suffocate  one  by  fasten- 
ing open  its  mouth. 

13.  The  Tongue. — The  long  tongue  of  these  animals  is 
fastened  at  the  front  of  the  mouth,  and  the  sticky  point 
is  turned  over  so  that  it  can  dart  forward  instantly,  then 
fold  back  to  snap  up  living  insects. 

14.  The  Development  of  Toads. — The  history  of  toads  is 
like  that  of  frogs,  except  that  their  eggs  are  laid  in  long 
strings  of  jelly  (Fig.  140),  which  may  be  found  floating 
on  ponds  and  ditches  in  the  spring.     As  their  young  ones 


Fig.  139. — SKKLETON  OF  FROG. 


FROGS  AND  TOADS.  215 

can  live  only  in  water,  these  animals  lay  their  eggs  either 
in  the  water  or  on  trees  and  plants  overhanging  a  pond, 
into  which  they  are  washed 
by  the  rain.  Large  numbers 
of  toads  thus  come  to  per- 
fection about  the  same  time, 
and  are  ready  to  leave  the 
water  together  and  begin  a 
new  life  upon  the  land. 
This  they  usually  do  after  a 

shower,  when    all    the    sur-  ^g  HO.-TOAD'S  EGGS. 

roundings  are  moist  and  at 
tractive  to  these  dwellers  in  the  marshes,  and,  from  the 
sudden  appearance  of  the  toads,  it  is  a  common  belief 
that  they  have  fallen  from  the  clouds  with  the  rain. 

15.  The  Surinam  Toad, — The  Surinam  toad  has  a  re- 
markable way  of  caring  for  its  young  ones.     The  eggs 
are  laid  in  the  water,  and  the  father  at  once  takes  them 
up  and  places  them  on  the  mother's  back,  when  the  skin 
rises  up  around  them,  forming  a  little  cell  for  each  egg. 
In   these  curious  nests  the   tadpoles  pass  through  their 
various  changes,  remaining  here  until  they  become  perfect 
toads. 

16.  Tree-toads. — Tree -toads  do  not  differ  much  from 
other  toads,  except  that  their  toes  end  in  suckers  and  they 
can  easily  climb  the  trees  upon  which  they  live.     Most 
tree-toads  are  green  or  brown,  and  have  a  general  resem- 
blance to  the  leaves  or  branches  of  the  trees. 

1 7.  Amphibious  Animals. — Leading  this  double  life,  first 
in  the  water,  then  on  the  land,  frogs  and  toads  are  called 
amphibious  animals,  and  you  will  notice  how  thoroughly 
they  connect  the  life  history  of  the  fishes  with  the  land 
animals.     They  start  life  with  gills   and  a  tail,  both  of 


216      ANIMAL    LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

which  they  lose,  and  gain  in  their  places  a  full  set  of  legs, 
new  lungs,  and  a  third  chamber  in  the  heart. 

18.  These  interesting  amphibians  are  the  last  animals 
we  shall  study  about  that  breathe  air  mixed  with  water; 
consequently,  we  are  done  with  gills,  as  well  as  with  two- 
celled  hearts.  We  shall  still  meet  with  animals  that  live 
in  the  water,  as  seals  and  whales,  but  they  are  obliged  to 
come  to  the  surface  for  their  supply  of  air. 


TURTLES.  217 


XXXIV. 
TURTLES. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  VERTEBRATA:   CLASS,  REPTILIA. 

1 .  An  Animal  that  lives  in  a  Box.  —  What  a  strange 
idea,  that  an  animal  should  live  inside  of  its  own  skele- 
ton, as  in  a  box  !     But  that  is  just  what  the  turtle  does, 
and  you  may  prove  the  singular  statement  by  examining 
the  skeleton  shown  in  Fig.  141,  or,  what  is  still  better,  the 
inside  of  an  actual  turtle-shell. 

2.  Shell  formed  of  the  Backbone  and  Ribs. — Here  you 
will  find  that  the  upper  arch  of  the  shell  is  made  of  the 
flattened  vertebrae  and  the  broad  ribs,  firmly  united  by 
notched  edges,  and  held  in  place  by  the  small  pieces  of 
bone  near  the  bottom.     There  is  also  a  flat  bone  under- 
neath the  body  which  is  not  shown  in  the  picture,  but 
which  completes  the  box  in  which  the  turtle  lives.     Open- 
ings are  left  at  the  front  and  back  through  which  the 
animal  pokes  out  its  head  and  tail,  and  its  legs,  and  when 
it  wishes  to,  it  can  draw  these  parts  of  the  body  into  the 
box  and  shut  itself  away  from  the  outside  world.     The 
shelly  plates  covering  the  bone  are  merely  portions  of  the 
turtle's  skin,  hardened  into  horn  or  shell. 

3.  Box  -  tortoise.  —  The  box -tortoise  (Fig.  142)  is  even 
more  thoroughly  protected  than  ordinary  turtles.     It  has 
joints  at  the  bottom  of  the  shell,  so  that  it  can  draw  up 
the  under  parts  tightly  all  around  the  edge  of  the  box, 


218      ANIMAL    LIFE    IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


Fig.  141. — SKELETON  OF  THE  TORTOISE  (PLASTRON  REMOVED). 

and  when  it  is  thus  closed  no  part  of  the  animal  can  be 
reached  from  the  outside. 

4.'  How  Turtles  Breathe. — You  will  readily  see  that  the 
neck  and  tail  are  the  only  movable  parts  of  the  spinal 
column ;  also,  that  the  ribs,  fastened  closely  together  side 
by  side,  cannot  be  used  in  breathing.  On  account  of  this 
arrangement,  turtles  fire  obliged  to  swallow  their  air  in 

the  same  manner 
as  frogs  do,  but 
from  a  different 
cause.  Frogs  have 
no  ribs  by  which 
the  chest  is  en- 
larged; and  al- 
though the  turtles 
,.  J42,— BOX-TORTOISE.  have  ribs,  they 


TURTLES. 


cannot  use  them,  because  they  are  immovabl^  fastened  to 
form  the  shell. 

5.  Turtles  do  not  Shed  their  Shells.— Some  persons  have 
an  idea  that  turtles  shed  their  shells  as  crabs  do.    But  since 
we  know  that  the  shell  is  composed  of  the  backbone  and 
the  flattened  ribs,  we  may  be  quite  certain  that  the  turtles 
do  not  lose  these  important  parts  of  their  body.     Turtles 
have  no  teeth,  but  their  horny  jaws  form  a  kind  of  beak 
which  serves  very  well  as  a  substitute. 

6.  The  Circulation  of  Cold-blooded  Animals.— The  heart 
of  the  turtle  contains  three  cavities,  two  auricles  and  a 
ventricle.     This  formation  of  the  heart 

gives  to  all  reptiles  a  peculiar  circula- 
tion which  characterizes  them  as  "  cold- 
blooded animals,"  and  which  is  of  so 
much  interest  in  this  connection  that 
we  will  try  to  understand  it  at  once. 

7.  After  the  blood  is  purified  in  the 
lungs,  it  enters   the   left  auricle  (Fig. 
143,  #),  while  the  impure  blood  from  the 
body  enters  the  right  auricle  (a).     The 
pure  blood   from  the  left  auricle,  and 
the  impure  blood  from  the  right  au- 
ricle, are   then   both   poured   into   the 
ventricle  (c),  and   this  mixed  blood  is 
sent  all  over  the  system,  as  well  as  to 
the  lungs.     This  imperfect  plan  of  cir- 
culation causes  the  low  temperature,  the 

slow  breathing,  and  the  sluggish  habits  of  reptiles.  Their 
blood  is  not  well  supplied  with  oxygen,  consequently  it  does 
not  leap  and  bound  through  their  veins  as  is  the  case  with 
more  highly  developed  animals,  filling  them  with  energy 
and  activity. 


Fig.  143.  —  CIRCULA- 
TION IN  REPTILES. 

a,  right  auricle  ;  b,  left 
auricle ;  c,  ventricle. 


220      ANIMAL    LIFE   IN    THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 

8.  Land -turtles  and  Water  -  turtles.  —  Animals  of  this 
species  which  live  upon  the  land  generally  pass  by  the 
name  of  tortoises ;  they  can  swim,  when  there  is  occasion 
for  it,  but  their  limbs  are  better  fitted  for  walking.    Tur- 
tles and  terrapins,  on  the  other  hand,  live  in  the  water 
or  in  marshy  places,  and  their  feet  form  good  swimming 
paddles. 

9.  Supposed  to  Live  to  a  Great  Age. — It  is  supposed  that 
tortoises  live  to  be  very  old,  and  dates  which  are  some- 
times  found    carved   upon   their    shells    might    serve   to 
strengthen  this  impression ;  but  we  have  no  way  of  judg- 
ing of  the  correctness  of  these  dates,  and  they  may  not 
be  reliable.      Tortoises  bearing  some  peculiar  mark  are 
found  repeatedly  in  the   same   locality,  from  which  we 
infer  that  they  are  not  roving  in  their  habits. 

10.  Hibernating. — None  of  the  reptiles  are  fond  of  cold 
weather,  so  they  do  not  venture  out  during  the  winter- 
time.     These   cold-blooded  animals   have   a  fashion  of 
hiding  away  under  leaves  and  brushwood,  inside  of  hollow 
logs,  and  in  other  snug  retreats,  where  they  take  a  good 
long  sleep  until  pleasant  weather  comes  again,  occasion- 
ally creeping  out  on  warm  days  in  a  stupid  condition. 
This  way  of  passing  the  winter   is   called  hibernating. 
Those  turtles  that  live  in  the  ocean  go  into  deep  water 
during   the   winter,  and  land -tortoises   work   their   way 
down  into  loose,  dry  earth,  where  it  is  quite  warm,  and 
where  they  can  sleep  undisturbed. 

11.  Green  Turtles, — Green  turtles  (Fig.  144)  are  so  called 
from  the  color  of  their  fat,  which  is  used  for  food,  and 
which  is  considered  a  great  delicacy.     They  live  in  trop- 
ical seas,  and  are  mostly  caught  when  they  come  on  shore 
to  deposit  their  eggs,  although  in  performing  this  duty 
they  use  the  utmost  caution.     They  leave  the  ocean  at 


TURTLES. 


221 


night  when  the  tide  is  at  the  highest  point,  and  going  a 
short  distance  from  the  water's  edge,  they  scoop  out  a 
hole  in  the  sand  about  a  foot  deep.    In  this  nest  they  lay  a 
large  number  of 
eggs  (said  to  be 
from    eighty    to 
a   hundred)   and 
cover  them  with 
sand,     carefully 
smoothing      the 
ground     to     re- 
move any  traces 
of  their  visit  be- 
fore    returning 
to  the  sea.     All 
this  is  done  very 
quickly,  and   it 
is  almost  impos- 
sible to  tell  where  the  eggs  have  been  placed.     Turtles' 
eggs   are  round  in  shape,  and  are  left,  without  further 
care,  to  be  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun. 

12.  After  leaving  the  egg,  the  tender  young  turtles,  not 
more  than  an  inch  long,  run  immediately  to  the  water. 
In  doing  so  they  act  prudently,  for  the  sea-birds  are  fond 
of  them,  and  eat  as  many  as  they  can  catch.     Having 
reached  the  water,  they  are  not  yet  free  from  danger,  but 
still  have  many  risks  to  run  from  fishes  and  other  sea 
creatures  that  are  ready  to  enjoy  the  tempting  morsels. 

13.  Tortoise-shell. — Tortoise-shell  which  is  used  for 
ornamental  work  comes  from  the  hawk's-bill  turtle.     The 
plates  of  this  shell  are  thinner  at  the  edges,  as  you  may 
gee  in  the  picture  (Fig.  145),  and  overlap  each  other  like 
tiles  on  a  roof.     In  order  to  work  the  tortoise-shell,  it  is 


P'ig.  144. — GREEN  TURTLE. 


222      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

softened  by  being  placed  in  boiling  water,  and  while  in 
this  pliable  condition  it  readily  takes  the  desired  form, 
which  is  retained  after  the  shell  becomes  cold. 


Fig.  145. — HAWK'S-BILL  TURTLE. 

14.  When  a  large  piece  of  tortoise-shell  is  needed,  sev- 
eral plates  are  joined  together.  This  is  done  by  scraping 
the  edges  of  the  plates  very  thin  and  laying  them  over 
each  other  while  they  are  in  a  softened  state.  They  are 
then  placed  under  a  heavy  pressure,  and  the  pieces  unite 
so  perfectly  that  the  seam  can  scarcely  be  discovered. 


SNAKES. 


XXXV. 
•  SNAKES. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  VERTEBRATA  :    CLASS,  REPTILIA. 

1.  Snakes  generally  Disliked.  —  Lurking  as  they  do  in 
solitary   nooks   and  unfrequented  places,  and   stealthily 
gliding    away   when   discovered,  it   is    no    wonder    that 
snakes  have  not  gained  for  themselves  many  friends. 

2.  Although  we  know  that  most  snakes  are  not  danger- 
ous, that  they  are  timid  animals,  anxious  to  escape  from 
our  presence,  and,  moreover,  that  their  coloring  is  some- 
times rich  and  beautiful,  yet  they  continue  to  be  objects 
of  general  dread  and  dislike,  and  few  of  us  can  appreciate 
beauty  when  it  is  presented  in  this  repulsive  form. 

3.  Snakes  have  no  Limbs. — These  animals  are  generally 
without  limbs  of  any  kind,  and  we  might  suppose  that  in 
this  destitute  condition,  deprived  of  the  ordinary  means 
of  travelling,  snakes  would  be  quite  helpless ;  but,  on  the 
contrary,  they  work  their  way  about  with  great  ease,  and 
seem  to  have  no  difficulty  in  catching  their  prey. 

4.  A  Flexible  Skeleton. — The  skeleton  of  a  snake  when 
carefully  prepared,  is  really  a  beautiful  object.     The  spi- 
nal column  is  extremely  movable,  since  it  consists  of  a 
great  number  of  vertebrae,  each  one  working  on  the  next 
by  a  ball-and-socket  joint.     There  are  sometimes  more 
than  four  hundred  vertebrae,  and  not  only  are  they  joined 
in  this  flexible  manner,  but  a  pair  of  ribs  is  also  attached 


224      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA    AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

to  each  vertebra  (excepting  a  few  near  the  head  and  tail) 
by  a  ball-and-socket  joint,  and  we  can  scarcely  imagine  an 
arrangement  of  bones  that  would  allow  more  freedom  of 
motion  than  this. 

5.  The  Ribs  raised  in  Creeping. — There  is  no  breastbone, 
and  the  lower  end  of  the  ribs  is  attached  by  short  mus- 
cles to  the  scales  on  the  abdomen.  In  the  process  of  creep- 
ing the  ribs  are  alternately  raised  and  lowered,  so  that 


Fig.  146. — SKUL.I,  OF  .BOA-CONSTKICTOU. 
a,  quadrate  boue ;   6,  6,  halves  of  lower  jaw. 

snakes  may  be  said  to  walk  upon  the  ends  of  their  ribs. 
This  movement  of  the  ribs  causes  the  quivering  motion 
throughout  all  parts  of  the  body,  which  you  have  perhaps 
noticed  in  watching  snakes  glide  noiselessly  along,  appar- 
ently making  no  effort. 

6.  How  can  a  Snake  open  its  Mouth  so  wide. — Snakes,  we 
knowy  perform  wonderful  feats  in  the  way  of  swallowing, 
often  taking  whole  animals  of  greater  diameter  than  their 
own  bodies.  We  may  be  interested  in  noticing  here  that 
they  are  enabled  to  do  so  by  the  loose  manner  in  which 
the  skull  is  put  together,  the  two  halves  of  the  lower  jaw 


SNAKES.  225 

being  united  in  front  only  by  elastic  ligaments.  In  addition 
to  this  arrangement,  the  lower  jaw  is  not  joined  directly 
to  the  skull,  but  is  attached  to  it  by  means  of  a  "  quadrate 
bone"  between  them  (Fig.  146,  a),  which  is  loosely  hung, 
and  which  allows  the  mouth  to  stretch  open  very  wide. 

7.  The  Teeth. — The  short  teeth  are  pointed  backward, 
and  they  serve  merely  to  seize  and  hold  the  prey.    They 
are  not  placed  in  sockets,  and  therefore  are  not  service- 
able for  chewing;  neither  are  they  needed  for  this  pur- 
pose, since  the  snake  swallows  its  food  whole. 

8.  The  Poison  -  fangs.  —  In  most  venomous   snakes  the 
"poison-fangs"  (Fig.  147, /)  take  the  place  of  other  teeth 
in  the  upper  jaw.     These 

poison-fangs  are  a  pair  of 

large  teeth  perforated  by 

a   tube    from   the    poison  - 

gland    (g)>        Ordinarily, 

when     not    in    use,  these 

fangs  are   laid  back    and    p.g  m  _P(11SON  ApPARATDS  „„  IHE 

hidden    by    a    fold    of   the  RATTLESNAKE. 

gum,  but   when    the    Snake       9,  poison-gland;  /,  fang;  m,  muscle  of 

is  about  to  strike  its  prey 

the  fangs  spring  forward,  and  the  pressure  of  the  muscle 
(m)  upon  the  poison-gland  forces  the  poison  down  the 
tube  and  through  the  fang  ready  to  flow  into  the  wound. 

9.  Snakes  coil  their  Bodies  before  Springing.  —  Before 
striking   with  their   fangs,  snakes   generally  wind  their 
bodies  into  a  coil,  from  which  they  bound  like  a  loosened 
spring,  by  straightening  themselves  out  and  resting  upon 
the  tail. 

10.  The  Tongue. — The  manner   in  which   snakes  stick 
out  their  slender,  forked  tongues  looks  rather  threatening 
sometimes,  but  the  tongue  is  perfectly  harmless,  and  need 

10 


ANIMAL   LIFE   IN  THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

cause  no  terror.  It  is  used  only  as  a  delicate  feeler  with 
which  the  snake  seems  to  examine  objects  in  passing,  fre- 
quently drawing  it  in  to  moisten  it. 

11.  The  Heart  shows  an  incomplete  Partition. — The  heart 
of  snakes,  like  that  of  turtles,  has  but  three  cavities,  two 
auricles  and  one  ventricle,  still  it  is  of  special  interest  to 
naturalists  on  account  of  an  incomplete  partition  which 
partly  divides  the  ventricle,  and  which  seems  to  indicate 
the  probability  that  after  a  time  we  may  find  animals 
with  perfect  four -celled  hearts.     Let  us  keep  a  bright 
lookout,  and  perhaps  we   may  soon  reach  this  point  in 
our  studies. 

12.  Shedding  the  Skin, — The  horny  scales  which  form 
the  outside  coating  of   snakes  are  again  covered  with  a 
thin,  delicate   skin  which  is  cast  off  at  certain  periods, 
and  a  new  skin,   already  formed  underneath,  takes    its 
place.     Before  shedding  its  skin,  the  animal  is  quite  in- 
active for  a  time,  and  the   skin  loosens  from  the  body 
and  breaks  around  the  mouth.     As  the  snake  then  creeps 
through   some   crevice   or   close  brushwood   the   skin   is 
drawn   off  inside  out,  much  in  the   same  way  that  we 
sometimes  draw  a  glove  from  the  finger. 

13.  The  Staring  Eyes, — The  fixed,  stony  stare  which  is 
so  unpleasant  a  feature  of  snakes  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
they  have  no  eyelids.     Many  thrilling  stories  are  told  of 
snakes  having  charmed  birds  and  other  small  animals,  but 
as  the  stories  do  not  seem  to  be  well  authenticated,  there 
is  little  reason  to  suppose  that  snakes  possess  any  such 
power.     The  birds  may,  in  these  cases,  have  been  over- 
come by  a  sense  of  fear,  for  the  snakes  are  their  most 
deadly  foes. 

14.  The  Rattlesnake.  —  None   of   our   snakes   are  more 
dreaded  than  the  rattlesnake,  whose  bite  is  exceedingly 


SNAKES. 


227 


poisonous.  This  snake  generally  gives  warning,  however, 
before  striking  its  prey,  by  shaking  a  peculiar  rattle  at 
the  end  of  its  tail.  The  rattle  is  composed  of  a  number  of 


Fig.  148.— RATTLESNAKE. 


horny,  button-like  rings  which  fit  loosely  into  one  another 
and  make  a  rustling  noise  when  shaken  rapidly.  It  is 
believed  that  one  new  rattle  is  gained  with  each  shed- 
ding of  the  skin,  but  as  those  at  the  end  sometimes  fall 


228      ANIMAL    LIFE    IN    THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

off,  the  age  of  the  snake  cannot  be  told  with  any  de- 
gree of  certainty  by  the  number  of  rattles.  Young  rat- 
tlesnakes are  hatched  in  broods  of  eight  or  ten  early  in 
the  summer,  and  keep  together  until  they  are  pretty  well 
grown.  In  times  of  danger  they  are  said  to  run  into  the 
mouth  of  their  mother  for  protection,  the  same  as  other 
young  snakes  do. 

15.  Boas, — The  tropical  swamps  of  South  America  form 
a  congenial  home  for  serpents,  and  here  are  found  the 
great  boas,  which  are  the  largest  of  living  snakes,  some- 
times exceeding  twenty  feet  in  length.     The  bite  of  the 
boa  is  not  poisonous,  but  these  animals  are  dreaded  on  ac- 
count of  their  great  muscular  power.     They  coil  them- 
selves tightly  around  their  victims,  and  in  this  way  de- 
stroy life  in  a  few7  minutes,  even  breaking  the  bones. 

16.  Manner  of  Attacking  their  Victims. — Boas  have  cu- 
rious hooks  or  claws  near  the  tail  which  are  in  reality  the 
traces  of  hind  limbs.     By  these  hooks  they  hang  suspend- 
ed from  the  branches  of  trees,  aided  also  by  twining  the 
powerful  tail  around  the  branches.    Waiting  in  this  favor- 
able position  near  a  stream  until  some  unfortunate  ani- 
mal comes  to  drink,  they  coil  themselves  with  wonderful 
rapidity  around  their  prey  and  crush  it  into  a  shapeless 
mass,  fit  to  be  swallowed.     After  a  full  repast  they  usu- 
ally lie  in  a  stupor  for  some  time  before  waking  up  to 
need  more  food.     While  in  this  partially  unconscious  con- 
dition the  boas  themselves  are  subject  to  many  perils  from 
their  enemies,  who  wrell  know  the  effect  upon  these  greedy 
creatures  of  over-indulgence  of  the  appetite. 

17.  The  Cobra. — The  cobra  of  India  is  an  exceedingly 
venomous  snake.     It  is  a  small  snake,  only  three  or  four 
feet  long,  with  a  curious  arrangement  by  which  the  skin 
of  the  neck  may  be  made  to  cover  the  head  like  a  hood, 


jJNAKKS. 


229 


when  this  dreaded  creature  is  irritated.  On  this  account 
it  is  sometimes  called  the  hooded  snake,  and  it  is  the  one 
usually  carried  about  by  snake-charmers.  The  cobra  is 
very  sluggish  in  its  habits,  and  it  has  an  unpleasant  fancy 


Fig.  149. — COBRA  DE  CAPELLO. 

for  entering  dwelling-houses,  which,  in  this  hot  country, 
are  infested  by  many  unwelcome  visitors.  Every  year  in 
India  several  thousand  people  die  from  the  bite  of  the 
cobra,  and  no  cure  has  yet  been  discovered  for  the  deadly 
poison,  although  the  British  Government  has  offered  a 
tempting  reward  for  such  a  cure. 


230      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN  THE  SEA  AND   ON  THE   LAND. 


XXXVI. 
LIZARDS. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  VERTEBRATA      CLASS,  REPTILIA. 

1.  Accomplished  Climbers. — The  active  lizards  with  long, 
slender  tails  differ  from  snakes  principally  in  having  four 
well  -  developed  limbs,  each  ending  in  five  toes;  and  these 
they  use  very  nimbly  in  running  over  rocks  and  along 
fence-rails.     The  position  of  their  own  bodies  seems  to 
make  little  difference  to  the  accomplished  climbers,  and 
they  have  no  difficulty  in  running  upon  smooth  under-sur- 
faces  with  their  backs  downward. 

2.  The  Eyes  are  protected  by  Lids. — These  bright  -  eyed 
little  creatures  have  two  eyelids  which  they  draw  over 
the  eye  in  winking,  and  as  they  have  none  of  that  stony 
expression  so  disagreeable  in  the  snake,  we  do  not  mind 
their  gazing  at  us.     In  fact,  it  is  quite   entertaining  to 
gaze  at  them  in  return  and  see  how  rapidly  they  dart  out 
their  slender,  forked  tongues  to  catch  the  insects  which 
form  their  chief  food. 

3.  Lizards'  Tails  are  very  Brittle. — One  odd  thing  about 
lizards  is  that  their  tails  are  so  brittle,  snapping  off  some- 
times very  unexpectedly.     Such  being  the  case,  there  is 
no  security  in  holding  a  lizard  by  its  tail,  for  the  cunning 
little  creature  may  run  off  and  leave  both  you  and  the 
tail  you  are  holding.     This  is  no  serious  loss  to  the  liz- 
ard, however,  for  a  new  tail  soon  grows  in  its  place. 


LIZARDS. 


231 


4.  Places  frequented  by  Lizards. — Some  kinds  of  lizards 
love  to  frequent  sandy  banks  where  they  may  bask  in 
the  sunshine,  while  others  conceal  themselves  in  damp 
places  under  stones  and  rotten  logs.  Fortunately  for 
the  shy  and  timid  lizards,  their  metallic  colors  often  re- 
semble the  vegetation  or  the  soil  on  which  they  live,  and 
they  can  thus  easily  keep  out  of  sight. 


Fig.  150.— LIZARD. 

5.  Advantages  gained  by  Mimicry. — With  regard  to  this 
similarity  of  coloring,  or  mimicry,  so  often  adopted  by 
animals,  it  is  important  we  should  understand  that  it  is 
a  protection  which  these  animals  have  gained  or  culti- 
vated for  themselves  —  unconsciously,  of  course,  and  en- 
tirely without  effort  on  their  part,  but  as  a  natural  result 
of  the  fact  that  animals  which  are  so  protected  stand  a 
better  chance  for  life.  Those  animals  of  any  kind  which 


232      ANIMAL    LIFE    IN    THE    SEA    AND    ON    THE    LAND. 


are  inconspicuous  among  their  ordinary  surroundings  are 
the  ones  most  likely  to  escape  their  enemies,  and  at  the 
same  time  they  are  the  ones  to  grow  strong  and  healthy 
from  having  plenty  to  eat,  since  it  is  easier  for  them  to 
pursue  their  prey  without  being  seen.  This  advantage 
once  gained  is  held  on  to,  and,  having  proved  useful  to 
the  parents,  is  handed  down  to  their  offspring,  thus  in- 
creasing little  by  little,  and  producing  at  last  very  curious 
and  interesting  results. 

6.  The  Chameleon.  —  Many  lizards  have  the  singular 
power  of  changing  their  color,  which  gives  theni(  anoth- 
er advantage  in 
concealing  them- 
selves. The  cha- 
meleon, especial- 
ly, is  celebrated 
for  its  sudden 
changes  of  color 
(Fig.  151).  It 
lives  only  in  the 
warm  parts  of  the 
Old  World.  It 
is  extremely  dull 

and  sluggish,  showing  no  spirit  for  anything  but  catching 
insects,  and  at  this  favorite  sport  it  is  quick  enough. 
Sometimes  it  remains  for  hours  in  one  position,  making 
no  movements  except  as  some  insect  goes  buzzing  past, 
when  the  sticky  tongue  is  instantly  darted  out  to  catch 
it.  This  tongue,  so  destructive  to  insect  life,  is  covered 
with  sticky  saliva,  and  looks  as  if  it  were  swollen  at  the 
end.  It  is  fastened  at  the  front  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  is 
usually  coiled  up  in  the  mouth,  but  when  thrown  out  it 
may  be  extended  for  a  length  of  six  inches. 


Fig.  151. — THE  CHAMKLKO> 


LIZARDS. 


233 


7.  As  chameleons  pass  their  time  in  the  trees,  they  need 
to  hold  on  to  the  branches,  and  for  this  purpose  their  toes 
are  arranged  in  two  groups,  like  a  parrot's,  three  toes  on 
one  side  of  the  foot,  and  two  on  the  other.  This  arrange- 
ment enables  them  to  grasp  the  twigs  with  their  toes,  and 
at  the  same  time  they  twist  their  tails  around  the  branch, 
as  you  see  in  the  picture.  Any  part  of  an  animal  which 
is  fitted  to  seizing  or  grasping  objects  in  this  way  is  said 
to  be  "prehensile."  Thus,  we  speak  of  the  prehensile  tail 
of  the  chameleon.  With  this  definition,  what  do  you  think 
we  might  now  say  of  the  tail  of  the  boa  ? 


Fig.  152.— THE  IGUANA. 

8.  The  Iguana.  —  The  iguana  of  tropical  America  is  a 
very  large  lizard,  nearly  five  feet  long,  with  a  row  of  bris- 
tling points  standing  upright  on  the  middle  of  the  back 
and  tail.    The  long,  awkward  legs  end  in  sharp  claws,  which 
assist  in  climbing  trees,  and,  clumsy  as  this  creature  looks  to 
be,  it  runs  about  among  the  branches  with  great  activity. 

9.  The  Flying  Dragon.  —  Another  curious  lizard,  much 
more  attractive  than  the  iguana,  is  the  flying  dragon  of 


234      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA    AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


Fig.  153.— THE  HORNED  TOAD. 

the  East  Indies.  It  has  a  broad,  wing-like  fold  of  skin  on 
each  side  of  the  body,  supported  by  two  ribs  which  stand 
out  straight  from  the  spinal  column.  The  dragon  is  up- 
held by  this  skin  as  it  takes  flying  leaps  from  one  tree  to 
another,  but  it  has  no  power  of  striking  the  air  as  a  bird 
does  with  its  wings. 

10.  The  Horned  Toad. — The  horned  toad,  so  characteris- 
tic of  our  Western  plains,  is  in  reality  a  lizard.  Its  young 
ones  do  not  pass  through  the  curious  changes  which  all 
young  toads  pass  through ;  it  has  a  real,  honest  tail,  and 
it  runs  like  a  lizard  instead  of  hopping  as  toads  do.  Per- 
sons visiting  the  West  often  bring  home  these  rough- 
skinned  horned  toads  for  pets,  and  we  hear  of  their  living 
for  months  without  food ;  but  during  this  time  they  may 
perhaps  have  snapped  up  a  goodly  supply  of  flies  when 
no  one  was  looking. 


CROCODILES.  235 


XXXVII. 
CROCODILES. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  VERTEBRATA  :    CLASS,  REPTILIA. 

1.  Crocodiles  in  their  Native  Homes. — To  see  crocodiles 
in  perfection  we  should  visit  the  rivers  of  tropical  Asia 
and  Africa.     Here  these  huge  bronze-green  reptiles  some- 
times reach  the  length  of  thirty  feet,  and  being  strong  and 
ferocious,  they  are  really  dangerous  animals. 

2.  It  is  difficult  for  us  to  understand  how  these  repulsive 
creatures  ever  came  to  be  regarded  with  favor  by  the  na- 
tives, who  must  often  have  suffered  from  their  attacks, 
but,  strange  as  it  may  appear,  they  were  considered  sacred 
by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  were  trained  by  them  to 
take  part  in  their  religious  processions. 

3.  The  Ferocious  Mouth.  —  The  mouth  of  the  crocodile 
looks  particularly  ferocious,  as  there  are  no  lips  to  cover 
the    grinning,  pointed  teeth,  which   are   always    visible. 
These    are   real,  strong,  biting  teeth,  too,  and  they  are 
firmly  set  in  pits  in  the  jaw,  and  below  the  root  of  each 
tooth  there  is  a  little  new  tooth  started,  ready  to  grow  up 
and  take  the  place  of  the  old  one  if  it  should  fall  out. 
In  this  way  vacancies  are  soon  filled,  and  no  matter  how 
old  a  crocodile  may  be,  its  mouth  is  always  supplied  with 
a  full  set  of  teeth.     As  if  to  add  to  this  hideous  effect, 
the  fourth  tooth  in  the  lower  jaw  is  longer  than  its  neigh- 
bors, and  when  the  mouth  is  closed  it  extends  up  over  the 
upper  jaw. 


ANIMAL    LIFE    IN    THE   SEA   AND    ON   THE   LAND. 


Fig.  1 54. — CROCODILK-HUNTINU. 

4.  The  Tough  Hide. — The  crocodile's  hide  is  exceeding- 
ly tough,  composed  of  plates  of  bone  covered  with  horny 
scales.     These  plates  are  raised  into  ridges  on  the  back 
and  tail,  where  they  form  various  patterns. 

5.  How  Crocodiles  capture  their  Prey. — Their  powerful 
tails,  besides  being  useful  in  swimming,  are  very  conven- 
ient for  striking  down  and  sweeping  into  the  water  many 
of  the  large  animals  upon  which  they  feed.     Having  thus 
secured  their  prey,  they  hold  it  under  water  until  it  is 
drowned,  being  careful,  however,  to  raise  their  own  snouts 


CROCODILES. 


237 


above  the  surface  once  in  a  while  for  air.  The  mouth  of 
the  crocodile  is  necessarily  open  during  this  time,  but  by 
a  peculiar  arrangement  of  valves,  shown  in  Fig.  155,  the 
throat  and  nostrils  may  be  instantly  closed,  so  that  water 
cannot  run  down  the  throat ;  and  the  process  is  perfectly 
safe  for  the  crocodile,  although  disastrous  to  its  victims. 
The  wily  crocodile  then  drags  the  lifeless  body  ashore, 
often  hiding  it  until  it  is  partly  decayed  before  eating  it. 
6.  Their  Difficulty  in  Turning.  —  It  is  generally  known 
that  crocodiles  have  great  difficulty  in  turning  quickly, 
and  when  persons  are  pursued  by  them  they  very  fre- 
quently profit  by  this  knowledge  and  make  their  escape 
by  rapidly  changing  their  course.  The  want  of  flexi- 
bility noticed  in  such  cases  is  caused  by  the  small  ribs 
which  are  attached  to  the  vertebrae  of  the  neck,  and 
which  interfere  with  its  free  movements. 


/,  tongue;  e,  glan<ls;  /,  inferior,  and  gt  superior,  valves  separating  the  cavity  of 
the  mouth  from  the  throat,  h. 


238      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

1.  The  Heart  and  the  Circulation  of  the  Blood.  —  We 
must  not  fail  to  examine  the  heart  of  the  crocodile,  for 
we  shall  find  in  it  a  decided  step  in  advance  of  the  other 
reptiles.  The  change  which  we  had  reason  to  expect  has 
at  last  taken  place.  You  will  remember  that  we  noticed 
an  incomplete  partition  in  the  ventricle  of  the  snake,  but 


Fig.  156. — ALLIGATOR. 

here  there  is  a  perfect  partition  making  two  separate  ven- 
tricles, and  the  heart  is  thus  divided  into  four  distinct  cells. 
The  pure  blood  is  consequently  kept  separate  from  the 
impure  blood  as  long  as  it  remains  in  the  heart. 

8.  The  advantage  gained  by  this  arrangement  is  soon 
lost,  however,  for  the  main  arteries  carrying  both  the  pure 
and  the  impure  blood  unite  soon  after  leaving  the  heart. 


CROCODILES. 


239 


and  the  two  kinds  of  blood  flow  together  in  one  stream. 
A  mixed  blood  is  therefore  sent  through  the  body  of  the 
crocodile,  the  same  as  in  other  cold-blooded  animals.  Not- 
withstanding this  apparent  failure,  a  perfect  circulation,  by 
which  the  system  is  supplied  only  with  pure  blood,  is  near* 
ly  reached,  as  we  shall  find  when  we  come  to  treat  of  birds, 

9.  Alligators.  —  Alligators  are  very  much  like  croco- 
diles, except  that  they  are  smaller,  that  their  feet  are  not 
so  completely  webbed,  and  that  they  are  found  only  in 
America.     They  are  very  numerous   in   the   rivers   and 
swamps  of  our  Southern  States,  where  they  may  be  seen 
swimming  witli  the  snout  just  above  water,  or  sunning 
themselves  on  the  banks  ;   and  they  are  a  never-ending 
source   of   entertainment   to   visitors    and   sportsmen   in 
these  popular  winter  resorts.      These   animals   are  most 
active  during  the   night,  at  which  times   they  make  a 
loud,  bellowing  noise.     In  cold  weather  they  bury  them- 
selves in  the  mud  and  become  perfectly  torpid,  but  the 
warm  sunshine  soon  revives  them. 

10.  The  Eggs  of  Alligators. — Alligators  lay  a  large  num- 
ber  of   eggs,  which 


are  deposited  on  the 
river-banks  in  a  mass 
of  vegetable  matter 
heaped  up  for  the 
purpose,  and  the  de- 
caying of  this  mass 
produces  the  heat 
necessary  for  hatch- 
ing the  eggs.  The 
mother  keeps  watch 
over  the  spot,  and 
tears  open  the  pile 


Fig.  157. — JUST  HATCHED. 


240      ANIMAL   LIFE    IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 

to  liberate  the  young  when  she  hears  their  cries.  She 
shows  some  affection  for  them,  and  does  what  she  can  to 
protect  them  from  the  old  males,  who  will  eat  them  if 
they  have  a  chance  to  do  so. 

11.  The  Reptiles  of  Ancient  Times. —  All  kinds  of  rep- 
tiles are  most  numerous  in  warm  countries,  and  they  have 
many  points  of  resemblance  to  birds.  There  was  a  time, 
very  long  ago,  when  reptiles  of  all  sizes  must  have  been 
abundant  on  our  earth.  Some  were  small,  like  the  liz- 
ards of  the  present  day,  while  others  were  of  gigantic 
size,  measuring  fifty  or  sixty  feet  in  length.  We  know  of 


Fig.  158. — FOOTPRINTS  OF  LABYRINTHOBON. 


CROCODILES.  241 

these  odd  reptiles  only  by  the  hints  and  sketches  of  their 
lives  which  are  traced  in  a  most  convincing  manner  upon 
the  rocks  in  the  form  of  fossil  remains,  and  many  of  them 
are  exceedingly  interesting  because  they  are  so  different 
from  any  animals  now  living. 

12.  Some  of  these  old-fashioned  creatures  had  long  necks, 
and  wings  which  in  all  probability  were  used  by  them  for 
mounting  into  the  air,  yet  at  the  same  time  the  upper-jaw 
contained  many  teeth  set  in  distinct  sockets  like  those  of 
a  crocodile,  and,  upon  the  whole,  the  skeleton  would  sug- 
gest a  bird  quite  as  much  as  a  lizard.     The  oldest  of  these 
fossils  yet  discovered  which  naturalists  can  place  confi- 
dently with  birds  is  the  archceopteryx,  and  a  strange-look- 
ing bird  this  one  must  have  been.     It  had  a  long,  jointed 
tail  like  a  lizard's  tail,  with  one  pair  of  quill  feathers  stand- 
ing out  from  each  vertebra. 

13.  Then  there  were  other  forms  entirely  different  from 
these  birdlike   reptiles — huge  beasts   having  very  long 
hind-legs,  upon  which  they  probably  hopped  or  walked 
nearly  erect,  while  their  short  front  legs  could  scarcely 
have  touched  the  ground.     Others,  again,  had  strong  tails 
and  paddle-feet,  suggesting  at  once  the  thought  that  they 
must  have  been  good  swimmers. 

14.  The  rocks  in  the  Connecticut  Valley  are  marked 
with  a  great  variety  of  birdlike  tracks,  some  of  them  very 
large,  which  are  now  believed  to  be  fossil  footprints  of 
curious  reptiles  like  some  of  those  we  have  been  speak- 
ing of. 

15.  In  Fig.  158  are  shown  fossil  footprints  of  the  laby- 
rinthodon,  an  animal  which  was  first  known  to  science 
only  by  its   footprints;   and  these   impressions   bear   so 
strong  a  resemblance  to  the  human  hand  that  the  animal 
has  been  called  the  "hand-beast." 

17 


242      ANIMAL  LIFE  IN  THE  SEA  AND  ON  THE   LAND. 

16.  In  looking  at  these  footprints,  we  can  form  no  idea 
of  the  vast  number  of  years  which  must  have  passed  since 
these  old-time  creatures  chanced  to  step  on  this  particular 
spot  of  mud,  leaving  impressions  to  be  treasured  up  long 
after  their  race  had  died  out,  and  the  earth  had  become 
peopled  by  much  more  attractive  beings. 


CHARACTERISTICS   OF  BIRDS.  243 


XXXVIII. 

CHARACTERISTICS   OF   BIRDS. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  VERTEBRATA  :    CLASS,  AVE8. 

1.  The  Beautiful  Birds. — There  is?  something  very  win- 
ning about  birds,  and  perhaps  we  are  scarcely  conscious 
of  how  much  these  light-hearted  creatures  do  to  gladden 
our  lives.    Joyous  and  beautiful,  they  charm  us  with  their 
graceful  movements,  no  matter  whether  we  see  them  soar- 
ing through  the  heavens,  flitting  about  among  the  tree- 
tops,  or  chirping  contentedly  over  their  simple  every-day 
duties.     Then  their  sweet   and  varied  song  is   another 
source  of  delight,  to  which  few  persons  are  insensible. 

2.  What  makes  Birds  so  Light  ?— Most  birds,  we  know, 
can  leave  the  earth  and  mount  up  into  the  air,  passing 
the  greater  part  of  their  lives  in  regions  that  other  ani- 
mals are  entirely  unable  to  reach.     We  may  safely  con- 
clude that  their  bodies  are  constructed  differently  from 
other  animals  or  they  could  not  thus  enjoy  so  unusual  an 
advantage.    Upon  looking  closely  into  the  matter  we  shall 
discover  that  birds  are  made  as  light  in  every  way  as 
possible.      Their  bones   are   hollow,  the    quills   of  their 
feathers  are  hollow,  and  both  of  these  are  filled  with  air ; 
moreover,  the  feathers  themselves  are  made  up  of  delicate 
filaments  which  cling  to  one  another  and  hold  a  great 
deal  of  air  in  their  meshes. 

3.  The  drawing  of  the  vulture  in  Fig.  160  will  give  us 


244      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


a  good  idea  of  how  small 
the  skeleton  of  a  bird  is, 
compared  with  the  whole 
bulk  of  the  body,  and 
when  we  remember  that 
many  of  these  bones  are 
filled  with  air  instead  of 
marrow,  as  they  were  when 
the  bird  was  very  young, 
we  begin  to  understand 
why  birds  are  so  light  in 
weight.  There  is  a  whole 
series  of  air-sacs  connect- 
ed with  the  lungs,  and 
extending  through  other 
parts  of  the  body,  as  well 
as  through  the  bones, 
which  help  to  reduce  the 
weight,  and,  just  as  might 
be  expected,  it  is  those 
birds  which  fly  most,  and 
therefore  need  to  be  very 
light,  that  are  best  sup- 
plied with  these  air- 
sacs. 


Fi<r  159.—  "THE  NORTH-WIND." 


CHARACTERISTICS   OF  BlRt)S. 


245 


4.  The  Wing  of  a  Bird.— Still,  for  all  this,  the  bird  could 
not  fly  without  wings.     So  it  is  the  wing  that  charms  us 
most,  and  when  we  see  what  a  simple  thing  it  is,  we  won- 
der at  its  power.     The  framework  is  formed  of  a  set  of 
bones  (Fig.  161)  very  similar  to  those  of  our  arm  and 
hand,  but  having  only 

one  perfect  finger, 
which  corresponds 
to  our  index  -  finger. 
Stretched  over  this 
framework  there  is 
a  thin  covering  of 
flesh  and  muscle  from 
which  grow  the  quills 
and  smaller  feathers, 
and  these,when  spread 
out,make  up  the  broad 
wing. 

5.  When  opened,  the 
upper  surface  of  the 
wing  is  rounded,  and 
the    air    can    readily 
slide  from  its  edges  as 
the  bird   mounts  up- 
ward, while,   on    the 
contrary, the  hollowed 
under    surface    holds 

the  air,  as  in  an  inverted  cup,  and  enables  the  bird  to 
press  upon  the  air  thus  confined.  The  movement  of 
the  wing  in  flying  is  somewhat  like  the  stroke  of  an 
oar;  the  wing  cuts  the  air  with  its  sharp  front  edge, 
but  presses  back  upon  it  with  its  full  outstretched 
surface.  As  this  action  is  repeated  again  and  again, 


Fig.  160. — SKELETON  OF  A  VULTURE. 
6,  keel  of  steruum ;  7,  clavicle,  or  wish-bone. 


246      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA  AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


the  bird  moves  forward  with 
an  easy,  gliding  motion. 

6.  The  Flying  Muscles  on 
the  Breast. — Although  flying 
looks  to  us  like  easy  work, 
we  may  know  there  are 
strong  muscles  required  to 
move  the  wings  so  rapidly 
and  so  gracefully.  These 
powerful  muscles  that  move 
the  wings  are  situated  on 
the  breast,  and  they  are  fast- 
ened at  one  end  to  the  large 
breastbone  or  sternum.  In 
those  birds  that  fly,  the 
breastbone  extends  straight 
out  in  front  like  the  keel  of 
a  ship  (Fig.  160,  6)  and  gives 
a  good  surface  for  the  at- 
It  is  these  same  flying  mus- 
cles which  make  the  breasts  of  birds  so  full  and  plump. 

7.  The  Wish-bone. — The  wish-bone  (Fig.  160,  7)  which 
delights  the  heart  of  every  child  has  also  an  important 
part  to  play  in  the  act  of  flying.  It  is  formed  of  the  two 
collar-bones  united  in  front,  and  its  particular  office  is  to 
keep  the  shoulders  apart  and  prevent  the  wings  from 
sliding  towards  the  breast  while  the  bird  makes  its  down- 
ward strokes.  This  little  wish-bone  is  another  good  ex- 
ample of  the  effect  of  use  or  disuse  upon  certain  parts  of 
the  body.  In  ostriches  and  other  birds  which  do  not  use 
their  wings  for  flying  the  bone  is  not  needed ;  conse- 
quently, it  does  not  grow,  but  always  remains  in  an  un- 
developed condition. 


161. — BONES  OP  A  WING. 
tachment  of  the  muscles. 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  BIRDS.  247 

8.  The  Arrangement  for  Perching. — Have  you  ever  won- 
dered how  it  is  that  a  little  bird  can  sit  so  securely  upon 
its  perch  all  night  long  and  never  once  tumble  off  when 
it  begins  to  nod  and  finally  goes  fast  to  sleep?     In  Fig. 
162  we  can  see  what  a  beautiful  arrangement  there  is  for 
perching.     The  thick  muscle  which  bends  the  bird's  toes 
is  placed  above  the  knee;  the  fibres  composing  this  muscle 
unite  into  a  long,  white  cord,  or  tendon,  which  passes  down 
in  front  of  the  knee  (Fig.  162,  A),  then  winds  around  to 
the  back  of  the  heel  and  goes  to  the  toes. 

9.  As  the  bird  settles  on  the  perch  and 
bends  its  knee  the  weight  of  the  body  pulls 
this  tendon  and  involuntarily  bends  the  toes. 
For  this  reason  the  toes  clasp  the  perch  se- 
curely even  when  the  bird  is  not  thinking 
about  it.     The  weight  of  the  body  contin- 
ually pulls  on  the  tendon,  and  the  bird  can- 
not help  holding  fast  to  the  perch.     In  the    Fig.  162.  — LEG 
same  way,  when  a  bird  is  walking  it  cannot        PERCHIN^IW) 
keep  its  foot  open  while  its   leg  is  bent. 

This  peculiarity  you  have  no  doubt  noticed  in  a  chicken 
stepping  slowly,  with  one  foot  daintily  uplifted  and  seem- 
ing to  scorn  the  idea  of  again  touching  it  to  the  earth. 

10.  The  Food  of  Birds  has  an  Important  Bearing  upon 
their  Structure.  —  By  watching  birds  we   shall  discover 
that,  while  some  feed  upon  insects,  other  kinds  are  hunt- 
ing for  fruits  and  seeds,  and  this  question  of  food  has 
an  important  bearing  upon  their  habits  and  choice  of  a 
home,  and  also  upon  the  structure  of  their  bodies. 

11.  Birds  which  feed  on  easily  digested  animal  food 
have   a  simple  gizzard  with  thin  walls.      On  the  other 
hand,  those  birds  which  feed  on  hard  grains  have  thick, 
muscular  gizzards  for  grinding   their  food.      The  little 


24:8      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN  THE   SEA   AND  ON  THE   LAND. 


pebbles  which  birds  swallow  are 
necessary  to  help  in  this  grinding, 
and  without  them  the  gizzard 
could  not  crush  the  food  properly. 

12.  The  digestive   organs   of  a 
bird,  as  seen  in  Fig.  163,  may  be 
easily  studied  in  the  common  fowl. 
The  long  O3sophagus  (3)  is  enlarged 
to  form  a  crop  (4).     Here  the  food 
is  moistened  with  digestive  juices, 
and  then  passed  on  to  the  gizzard 
(*7)  in  small  quantities. 

13.  A  Perfect  Four -celled 
Heart. — After  noticing  the 
gradual  modifications  in 
the  hearts  of  fishes  and 
reptiles,  we  have  now  the 
satisfaction  of   finding  in 
birds  the  first  instance  of 

a  perfect  -  working   four -celled 
heart,  which  succeeds  admira- 
bly in  keeping  the  pure 
blood  and  the  impure 
blood   from  becom- 
ing mixed. 

14.  The  right  side 
of  the  heart,  as  shown 

in  the  ideal  plan  in     Fjg  ^.—DIGESTIVE  ORGANS  OF  A  FOWL. 
Fig.  164,  is  set  apart 

tO  receive  the  impure  3,  oesophagus;  4,  crop;   7,  gizzard. 

blood   and  no   other, 

and  to  send  it  to  the  lungs,  while  the  left  side  receives 

the   pure   blood  that   is    returned  from   the    lungs    and 


CHARACTERISTICS   OF   BIRDS. 


24:9 


pumps  it  into  the  arteries,  which  carry  it  to  all  parts  of 
the  body. 

15.  The  High  Temperature  of  Birds.— This  perfect  circu- 
lation is  found  in  all  the  higher  animals,  giving  them  a 
high  temperature.     Still,  the  blood  of  birds  is  hotter  than 
that  of  other  animals,  owing  partly  to 

their  perfect  circulation,  to  the  abun- 
dant supply  of  air  in  their  bodies,  and 
also  to  their  covering  of  down  and 
feathers,  which  keeps  the  heat  from  es- 
caping. The  temperature  of  birds  is 
104°  ;  that  of  the  human  body  is  98°. 

16.  The  Music  of  Birds,  —  The  ex- 
quisite music  of  the  birds  is  produced 
by  an  arrangement  of  bones  and  car- 
tilages at  the  lower  end  of  the  wind- 
pipe, or  trachea,  as  it  is  called.     Cur- 
rents of  air  passing  through  this  part 
of  the  trachea  give  a  quivering  motion 
to  the  membrane  stretched  across  it, 
and  produce  all  the  varied  notes  so 
pleasing  to  our  ears. 

17.  Birds  evidently  sing  sometimes 

for  their  own  pleasure,  and  then  the  whole  depths  of  their 
nature  seem  to  be  poured  into  their  music;  but  their  song 
is  also  at  times  a  call  to  their  mates  and  to  their  young 
ones.  As  a  rule,  male  birds  are  more  musical  than  their 
mates.  They  are  likewise  larger  and  more  brilliant. 

1 8.  Their  Coloring.  —  Gayest  of  all  the  birds  are  those 
living  in  the  tropics,  while  those  that  inhabit  the  Arctic 
regions  are  of  dull  colors,  and  some  of  them  change  to 
white  when  winter  comes  and  the  ground  is  covered  with 
snow.     So  birds,  too,  you  see,  also  resort  to  mimicry. 


Fig.  164.  —  PLAN  OF 
CIRCULATION  IN 
BIRDS  AND  MAM- 
MALS. 

a,  right  auricle ;   6,  left 
auricle;  c,  c',  ventricle. 


250      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

1 9.  Their  Plumage. — Birds  are  the  only  animals  that  are 
clothed  with  feathers,  and  much  of  their  beauty  is  due  to 
the  colors  and  markings  of  this  soft,  fluffy  covering  as 
well  as  to  its  charming  metallic  lustre. 

20.  Growth  of  the  Feathers. — These  beautiful  feathers 
grow  from  little  sacs  in  the  skin,  and  are  made  of  a  horny 
substance,  much  the  same  as  the  scales  of  reptiles.     But, 
unlike  these  scales,  the   feathers   have   split    up,  during 
growth,  into  many  narrow  strips,  which  give  them  their 
peculiar  softness.     Upon  the  legs  and  feet  of  most  birds 
you  may  see  scales  which  have  not  split  up  thus  into 
feathers. 

21.  Feathers  examined. — You  may  also  notice  how  differ- 
ent the  soft,  downy  feathers,  overlapping  one  another  so  as 
to  form  a  warm  covering  for  the  body,  are  from  the  large 
quill-feathers  of  the  tail  and  wings.     These  last  are  very 
useful  in  flying,  since  the  tail  feathers  form  a  kind  of 
fan  which  helps  the  bird  to  steer  its  course,  and  the  wing 
feathers  greatly  increase  the  size  of  the  wing  without  add- 
ing much  to  its  weight. 

22.  Upon  examining  any  common  feather  you  may  see 
on  each  side  of  the  quill  small  branches,  or  "  barbs,"  and 
you  must  notice  how  completely  these  unite  with  each 
other  to  form  the  broad  "vane"  (c,  Fig.  165).    On  both 
edges  of  the  barbs  there  is  a  row  of  still  smaller  "  bar- 
bules,"  ending  in  hooks,  which  interlock  with  the  next 
row  and  are  thus  held  firmly  together.    When  these  barbs 
are  pulled  apart  we  can  see  the  little  barbules  separating, 
and  if  they  are  placed  together  again  side  by  side  they 
will  unite  as  before. 

23.  Now,  we  cannot  make  the  lower  barbs  on  the  quill 
unite  in  this  way,  neither  can  we  the  down  feathers  which 
lie  next  to  the  skin  of  the  bird,  because  their  barbules  have 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF   BIRDS. 


251 


no  hooks  on  them.  This  is  also  the  case  with  the  feathers 
of  the  ostrich  and  other  birds  of  its  kind — the  barbs  never 
unite  with  each  other,  and  hence 
the  plumes  are  soft  and  downy. 

24.  Preening. — The  neck  of  birds 
is  always  long  enough  to  allow  the 
beak  to  reach  an  oil-gland  which 
is  situated  at  the  end  of  the  tail, 
and    which    supplies    the    oil    for 
"  preening"  the  feathers.    The  tail 
can  also  be  raised  part  way  to  meet 
the  beak,  and  the  bird,  having  thus 
obtained  a  supply  of  oil  from  the 
gland,  passes  its  feathers  one  after 
another  through  its   bill  in    such 
a   way   as    to    distribute    the    oil 
through  the  plumage.   This  process 
of  preening  smooths  the  feathers 
so  that  the  bird  may  glide  easily 
through  the  air  or  water,  as  the 
case  may  be,  and  it  also  serves  to 
make  the  plumage  water-proof. 

25.  The  Migration  of  Birds. — But 
few  birds  remain  constantly  in  the 
places    where    they   are    hatched. 
Migratory  birds  unite  in  flocks  and 
take  long  journeys  at  certain  sea- 
sons, leaving  cold  countries  at  the 
approach  of  winter  and  returning 
in   the   spring,  thus   making   two 

journeys  each  year.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  they 
always  make  their  nests  and  raise  their  young  broods  in 
the  coldest  countries  which  they  visit. 


Fig.  165. — PARTS  OP  A 
FEATHKR. 

a,  quill ;  6,  shaft ;  c,  vane  ; 
d,  down. 


252      ANIMAL    LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 

26.  In  these  migrations  all  the  birds  of  one  species  seem 
filled  with  an  impulse  to  move  in  one  direction  in  search 
of  food  or  other  favorable  conditions.     Each  kind  has  its 
time  for  starting,  and  seldom  varies  from  it.     They  some- 
times return  the  following  season  to  the  exact  spot  they 
started  from,  having  in  the  mean  time  travelled  hundreds 
of  miles.     The  sea  does  not  stop  them,  but  they  often 
take  long  flights  over  its  surface,  as,  for  instance,  in  cross- 
ing the  Mediterranean  Sea  from  Europe  to  Africa,  or  in 
going  from  our  own  coast  to  the  Bahama  Islands  and  to 
South  America. 

27.  Birds  Useful  in  destroying  Insects. —  Many  of  the 
smaller  birds,  which  in  former  times  were  killed  or  fright- 
ened off  because  they  robbed  our  gardens  and  orchards, 
are  now  considered  useful  in  destroying  insects,  and  gar- 
deners are  doing  what  they  can  to  invite  their  return. 
That  birds  eat  fruit  is  very  true,  and  that  they  select  the 
largest  and  finest  is  also  true  ;  nevertheless,  the  injury 
done  by  insects  is  far  more  serious  in  its  character. 


BIRDS'    EGGS   AND   NESTS.  253 


XXXIX. 
BIRDS'  EGGS  AND  NESTS. 

1.  The  Egg. — What  a  mystery  is  connected  with  the 
egg!     A  little  world  of  itself  !     Shut  apart  from  the  out- 
side world,  it  seems  a  lifeless  thing,  yet  within  that  little 
sphere  mighty  forces  are  at  work,  which,  under  favorable 
circumstances,  will  produce  a  perfect  animal,  gifted  with 
life,  and  soon  showing  the  habits  and  peculiarities  of  its 
ancestors. 

2.  The  Study  of  the  Egg. — On  opening  an  egg  we  see 
merely  the  "white,"  in  the  middle  of  which  floats  the 
"yolk,"  with  the  whitish  "germ  cell "  clinging  to  it.     This 
germ  cell  occupies  but  little  space,  yet  it  is  the  important 
part  of  the  egg — the  part  for  which  all  the  rest  of  the  egg 
was  made,  because  it  is  just  at  this  spot  that  the  young 
bird  begins  to  grow.    We  cannot  see  without  a  microscope 
the  twisted  cords  of  albumen  at  both  ends  of  the  egg  which 
hold  the  yolk  pretty  nearly  in  the  centre,  but  we  can  see 
them  represented  in  Fig.  166.     Those  twisted  cords  allow 
the  yolk  to  roll  over  from  one  side  to  another  when  the 
egg  is  turned,  and  so  the  germ  cell,  which  is  at  the  lightest 
part  of  the  yolk,  keeps  always  uppermost,  as  in  the  pict- 
ure.    Here  we  have  a  beautiful  contrivance  by  which  the 
germ  cell  is  sure  to  be  nearest  to  the  body  of  the  bird  as 
she  sits  upon  her  eggs,  no  matter  how  often  the  eggs  are 
turned  over. 


254      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA  AND   ON  THE   LAND 

3.  Why  a  Bird  sits  upon  her  Eggs.— Of  course,  that  ^»rt 
of  the  egg  nearest  the  bird  gets  the  most  heat  from  ner 
warm  little  body  and  her  soft,  downy  feathers,  and  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  heat  is  necessary  to  develop  the  new  life 
within  the  egg.  This  we  know  is  the  reason  that  birds 
sit  upon  their  eggs,  and  that  they  are  so  careful  not  to 
leave  the  nest  long  enough  for  them  to  become  chilled. 


a,  yolk,  showing  concentric  layers;  a',  its  semi-fluid  centre;  b,  inner  dense  part 
of  the  albumen;  b',  outer  thiuuer  part;  c,  twisted  cords  of  albumen;  A,  the 
white  spot,  or  germ  cell. 

4.  Growth  of  the  Young  Bird. — As  we  have  just  said, 
the  young  bird  begins  to  grow  from  the  germ  cell.  The 
albuminous  white  of  the  egg  furnishes  the  building  ma- 
terial for  its  growth,  and  the  rich  oily  yolk  nourishes  the 
newly  formed  bird  as  long  as  it  continues  in  the  shell. 
The  more  there  is  of  this  rich  yolk  stored  up  in  the 
egg,  the  stronger  and  better  developed  will  the  bird  be 
on  leaving  it,  as  is  clearly  shown  in  the  case  of  those 
birds  whose  eggs  contain  a  large  yolk.  The  young  of 
such  birds  are  able  to  run  about  and  help  themselves  as 
soon  as  they  are  hatched ;  whereas  the  young  of  those 


BIRDS'   EGGS   AND   NESTS. 

having   small   yolks,  not  being   so    fully   developed, 
hatched  in  a  blind  and  naked  con- 
dition, and    need    to    be    fed    arid 
brooded  over  by  their  parents. 

5.  The  Supply  of  Air.— No  doubt 
you   have    often   noticed   in   hard- 
boiled  eggs  a  little  hollow  place  at 
the  larger   end  like  the  one 
shown  at/,  in  Fig.  166.    There 
is  a  little  bubble  of  air  here, 
between  the  two  deli- 
cate tissues  lining  the 
shell,  for  the  use  of  the 


255 


are 


Fig.  167.— 


256      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON  THE  LAND. 

baby  bird,  and  the  shell  is  also  full  of  small  pores  through 
which  fresh  supplies  of  air  can  easily  pass. 

6.  The  Bird  chips  its  Way  out.— When  the  tiny  creat- 
ure, shut  up  in  the  shell,  is  fitted  to  live  in  the  great 
world  outside,  it  pierces  this  hard  case  and  chips  its  way 
out  by  the  help  of  a  small  knob  on  top  of  its  beak.     This 
knob  seems  to  be  only  a  tool  to  help  the  bird  escape  from 
the  shell,  and  as  it  is  of  no  use  afterwards  it  soon  dis- 
appears. 

7.  The  bird  is  now  fully  equipped  with  bones,  muscles, 
bill,  claws,  and  internal  organs.    These  parts  have  all  been 
formed  and  nourished  from  the  contents  of  that  little  egg- 
shell.    Moreover,  we  find  the  contents  of  the  shell  have 
been  entirely  absorbed,  showing  that  though  the  egg  fur- 
nishes all  that  is  needed  for  the  formation  of  the  young 
animal,  there  is  nothing  in  it  which  is  unnecessary. 

8.  Birds'  Nests.  —  These   same   birds'  eggs,  so   full  of 
wonderful  design,  are  very  precious  to  the  heart  of  the 
mother-bird,  and  she  never  seems  happier  than  when  hard 
at  work  getting  her  nest  ready  to  receive  them.    The  nest 
is  also  intended  for  the  early  home  of  her  little  ones,  and 
she  displays  much  skill  and  industry  in  building  it.     As  a 
general  rule,  the  small  birds  with  delicate  feet  and  slender 
bills  are  most  successful  in  weaving  a  fine  and  elegant 
nest. 

9.  All  birds  of  the  same  species  build  their  nests  alike 
from  one  generation  to  another,  and  seldom  depart  from 
the  long-established  plan.     They  not  only  use  the  same 
building  material,  but  they  select  similar  locations,  so  that 
those  who   are  familiar  with  the  habits  of  birds  know 
pretty  well  in  what  kind  of  places  to  look  for  any  par- 
ticular nests  they  may  be  in  search  of. 

10.  Birds'  tastes  differ  widely  in  the  choice  of  a  home, 


BIRDS'   EGGS   AND    NESTS. 


257 


and  high  tree-tops,  way- side  hedges,  low  bushes,  hollow 
tree-trunks,  and  grassy  pastures  all  have  advantages  of 
their  own  in  the  estimation  of  the  birds  that  occupy  them. 
Every  boy  and  girl  should  know  the  keen  pleasure  of  find- 
ing these  charming  nests  hidden  away  among  the  leaves 
and  grass. 

11.  Building  Materials. — Some  birds, 
you  may  have  noticed,  use  nothing  for 
building  materials  but  small  sticks,  dried 
grass,  and  hair;  some  weave  pieces  of 
string  and  strips  of  birch  bark  in  among 
the   grass ;   others,  again,  plaster   their 
nests  with  mud  to  make  them  strong. 
The  great-crested  flycatcher  has  a  sin- 
gular fancy  for  the   cast  -  off  skins   of 
snakes,  and  always  hunts  up  one  or  two 
of  these  skins  to  weave  into  her  nest. 
She  then  lines  it  with  soft  brown  feath- 
ers of  the  same  general  color  as  the  eggs 
that  are  to  lie  within  it.      The  tailor- 
bird  also  makes  an  odd  nest  (Fig.  168) 
by  sewing  together  the  leaves  of  trees, 
and  in  doing  so  she  must  use  her  beak 
and  slender  claws  in  the  place  of  a  nee- 
dle.    In  arranging  their  nests  most  birds  have  a  thought 
for  comfort,  and  put  in  some  soft  lining,  using  for  this 
purpose  feathers,  fine  grass,  delicate  thistle-down,  or  the 
yellow  woolly  covering  of  young  ferns. 

12.  Dangers  to  which  the  Nests  are  exposed. — Imagine, 
now,  these  dainty  homes  after  the  tiny  eggs  have  been 
placed  within,  or  a  little  later,  when  they  are  filled  to 
overflowing  with  tender  young  birds,  and  you  may  know 
how  attractive  they  are  to  hawks  and  owls  and  snakes 

18 


Fig.  168.  —  NEST  OF 
THE  TAILOR-BIRD. 


258      ANIMAL    LIFE  .IN   THE   SEA  AND   ON   THE    LAND. 

and  other  animals  that  are  prowling  about,  seeking  what 
they  may  devour.  In  fact,  these  little  tidbits  are  so  eager- 
ly sought  both  day  and  night  as  to  make  the  parent 
birds  very  anxious  for  the  safety  of  their  little  ones,  and 


Fig.  169. — NEST  OF  THE  WEAVER-BIRD. 


in  consequence  of  the  dangers  to  which  they  are  ex- 
posed most  birds  conceal  their  nests  as  much  as  possi- 
ble from  sight.  In  the  tropics  they  often  hang  them 
on  the  outer  twigs  of  trees,  away  from  the  reach  of  mon- 
keys and  reptiles.  The  illustration  on  this  page  shows 


BIRDS'    EGGS   AND   NESTS.  259 

the  nest  of  the  African  weaver-bird,  curiously  fashioned, 
and  hanging  from  the  branch  of  a  tree. 

13.  The  Necessity  for  Screening  a  Bright-colored  Bird.— 
It  has  been  noticed  that  those  female  birds  which  have 
bright  and  conspicuous  colors,  like  their  mates,  build  in 
hollow  trees,  or  else  make  covered  nests,  that  they  may 
not  be  so  easily  seen  while  sitting  upon  them.     On  the 
other  hand,  when  the  female  is  of  a  dull  color,  and  there 
is  not  the  same  need  of  concealment,  the  nest  is  made 
open.     It  will  at  once  be  evident  that  a  bird  which  har- 
monizes in  color  with  the  general  hue  of  her  nest  might 
sit  upon  it  unnoticed,  whereas  a  bright  -  colored  bird  in 
such  an  exposed  position  would  attract  the  attention  of 
her  enemies,  and  thus  inform  them  where  her  treasures 
are  stored. 

14.  Eggs  concealed  by  their  Coloring  and  Markings. — 
This  fascinating  subject  of  the  coloring  of  birds  may  be 
extended  to  the  eggs  as  well,  and  you  will  find  it  a  pleas- 
ing study  to  notice  the  various  tints  by  which  birds'  eggs 
are  made  to  blend  with  their  surroundings.     The  curious 
blotches  and  specks  and  the  indescribable  lines  and  mark- 
ings with  which  many  eggs  are  ornamented  serve  as  an 
additional  concealment.     Perhaps  you  will  discover  that 
eggs  which  are  placed  in  open  nests  are  generally  shielded 
from  observation  in  this  way,  while  those  eggs  that  are 
laid  in  holes  and  in  concealed  places  are  often  purely 
white. 


260      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


XL. 
SWIMMING-BIRDS  (NATATORES). 

SUB-KINGDOM,  VERTEBRATA  :   CLASS,  AVES. 

1.  Birds  divided  into  Seven  Groups. — Nowhere  in  the 
study  of  Natural  History  do  we  find  animals  more  beau- 
tifully fitted  to  the  kind  of  life  they  lead  than  the  birds 
are.  With  regard  to  their  habits  and  manner  of  living, 
they  seem  naturally  to  divide  themselves  into  the  follow- 
ing seven  groups  :  the  swimmers,  the  waders,  the  runners, 


SIP* 


Fig.  170.— WILD  DUCKS. 


SWIMMING-BIRDS.  261 

the  scratchers,  the  climbers,  the  perchers,  and  the  birds  of 
prey.  Perhaps  we  cannot  do  better  than  accept  the  hints 
of  nature,  so  we  will  study  them  in  this  order.  The 
beaks  and  feet,  as  a  general  thing,  indicate  the  habits  of 
the  bird,  and  show  to  what  group  it  belongs. 

2.  Ducks  and  Geese:  Examples  of  Swimming -birds.— 
Ducks  and  geese  present  themselves  at  once  to  our  minds 
as  familiar  examples  of  swimming-birds,  and  we  can  see 
how  exactly  their  boat-shaped  bodies  and  long  necks  are 
suited  to  living  on  the  water.  Then  they  are  web-footed 


Fig.  171. — FOOT  OF  A  GANNET. 

(that  is,  they  have  a  skin  between  the  toes,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  171),  which  enables  them  to  swim  easily,  and  their 
short  legs  are  placed  far  back  on  the  body.  This  posi- 
tion suits  very  well  for  paddling  in  the  water,  but  it  makes 
their  gait  upon  land  extremely  awkward — so  much  so  that 
the  waddling  of  the  duck  has  become  proverbial. 

3.  Protection  against  Changes  of  Temperature.  —  First 
diving  into  the  water,  then  flying  up  into  the  air,  these 
swimming-birds  are  necessarily  exposed  to  great  changes 
of  temperature,  and  as  a  protection  against  such  sudden 
changes  their  bodies  are  covered  with  a  thicker  and  closer 
plumage  than  other  birds  have  ;  the  coat  of  down  next 
to  the  skin  is  also  very  thick.  There  is,  moreover,  an  un- 
usually large  supply  of  oil  from  the  oil-gland,  which  keeps 


262      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN  THE   SEA  AND   ON  THE   LAND. 

the  plumage  from  getting  wet,  and  gives  the  feathers  that 
beautiful  gloss  so  noticeable  in  the  duck. 

4.  The  Bills  form  a  good  Strainer. — These  birds  have  an 
odd  way  of  gobbling  up  their  food,  often  taking  in  mud 
and  water  at  the  same  time,  but  their  broad,  flat  bills  are 
furnished  with  rough  plates  around  the  edge,  which  form 
a  very  good  strainer.     Being  richly  supplied  with  nerves, 
this  strainer  is  able,  in  some  way,  to  select  the  particles 
of  food  and  keep  them  in  the  mouth  while  the  mud  is  al- 
lowed to  run  out. 

5.  The  Swans. — More  graceful  than  the  ducks  and  geese 
are  the  swans,  with  their  long  necks  gently  curved  and 
their  wings  partly  lifted  when  swimming,  as  if  to  catch 
the  wind.     When  swans  are  attacked,  they  defend  them- 
selves with  spirit,  making  a  loud  hissing  sound  and  strik- 
ing violently  with  their  wings. 

6.  How  Flocks  of  these  Birds  may  be  Recognized.— Wild 
ducks,  geese,  and  swans  are   excellent  flyers  as  well  as 
swimmers,  and  they  can  be  recognized  at  a  distance  by 
their  wedge-shaped  flocks.     In  reality,  these  birds  fly  in 
two  lines,  which  come  together  in  front  and  gradually  sep- 
arate towards  the  last  of  the  flock,  so  that  the  general  ap- 
pearance of  the  company  has  the  shape  of  a  wedge.     The 
leader  flies  at  the  point  where  the  two  lines  meet,  and 
when  he  becomes  weary,  he  leaves  his  post  to  his  next 
neighbor,  and  falls  back  to  the  last  of  one  of  the  two  lines ; 
but  meanwhile,  during  this  change  of  leaders,  the  flock 
keeps  in  perfect  order.     Upon  these  migrations  the  birds 
fly  thousands  of  miles,  and  build  their  nests  in  summer 
among  the  lakes  and  marshes  of  cold  northern  countries. 

7.  Flamingoes  and  their  Nests. — A  company  of  flamin- 
goes like  those  in  Fig.  172,  with  their  bright  scarlet  bodies, 
their  long  slender  legs,  and  their  curved  bills,  is  certainly 


SWIMMING-BIRDS. 


263 


very  handsome ;  but  how  odd  they  must  look  when  sitting 
on  their  high,  conical  nests,  which  are  made  of  mud  heap- 
ed up  into  slender  mounds  two  or  three  feet  high,  and 
shaped  somewhat  like  an  old-fashioned  churn — small  at  the 
top,  and  increasing  in 
size  towards  the  bot- 
tom. These  mounds 
are  scooped  out  at  the 
top,  just  enough  to 
hold  the  eggs,  and  the 
bird  sits  upon  the  col- 
umn with  its  legs  dou- 
bled under  it,  in  the 
same  way  as  other  birds 
sit  upon  their  nests. 

8.  Sea-birds. — Less 
familiar  than  some  of 
these  land -birds,  but 
not  less  interesting,  is 
the  whole  host  of  sea- 
birds,  whose  habits 
are  necessarily  very 
different.  Many  of 
these  sea  -  birds  pass 
their  lives  entirely 
upon  the  ocean,  and  j,<jg.  172.— FLAMINGOES. 

sleep    at    night    with 

their  heads  tucked  under  their  wings  as  they  float  upon 
the  waves.  They  feed  upon  fishes  and  other  small  ani- 
mals, which  they  snatch  while  skimming  over  the  water. 
They  go  on  shore  only  to  raise  their  young  ones,  and  for 
this  purpose  they  often  select  lonely  islands  and  steep, 
bald  cliffs.  Here  thousands  of  them  raise  their  young 


264      ANIMAL   LIFE    IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON    THE   LAND. 

upon  the  bare  rocks,  and  mingle  their  screams  with  the 
roar  of  the  waves  below. 

9.  In  a  certain  sense,  perhaps,  these  birds  are  destitute 
of  the  charms  which  we  usually  expect  to  find  in  birds. 
They  seldom  take  any  pains  with  their  nests,  and  their 


Fig.  178. — A  FEW  SEA-BIRDS. 

note  is  only  a  shrill  cry;  but  these  defects  are  easily  over- 
looked after  once  seeing  them  upon  the  lonely  ocean  and 
learning  something  of  the  wild,  free  lives  they  lead. 

10.  Gulls. — First  of  all,  there  are  the  gulls,  so  abundant 
all  over  the  world.     With  their  strong  wings  they  fly  rap- 


SWIMMING-BIRDS. 


265 


idly  and  gracefully  over  the  sea,  and  when  their  keen  eyes 

discover  a  tempting  morsel  in  the   water  beneath,  they 

make  a  sadden 

dive  to  procure 

it.     These  birds 

meet    in    large 

numbers       to 

breed     on     the 

rocks,  or  on  the 

sand-bars  at  the 

mouths  of  rivers 

and  bays.  Their 

shrill  cry  seems 

to     be     half     a 

laugh   an^,  half 

a    scream,    and 

sounds  very  weird   and  melancholy  when  it  is  heard  at 

night  or  during  a  raging  storm.     The  graceful,  elegant 

gulls  generally  keep 
quite  near  the  shore, 
and  are  not  found  very 
far  out  at  sea. 

11.  The  Stormy  Pet- 
rel.—The  stormy  pet- 
rel, on  the  other  hand, 
is  met  at  great  dis- 
tances from  the  land. 
Although  the  smallest 
of  web -footed  birds, 
Fig.  175.— STORMY  PKTRKL.  and  not  larger  than  a 

swallow,    it     is     very 

brave,  and  flies  over  the  roughest  sea  with  perfect  confi- 
dence, rising  with  the  billows  and  sinking  with  the  fall- 


266      ANIMAL    LIFE   IN    THE   SEA   AND.  ON   THE   LAND. 


Fig.  176. — THE  ALBATROSS. 

ing  waves  as  if  delighting  in  the  storm.  Watching  the 
petrels  is  one  of  the  delights  of  a  sea- voyage.  To  all 
appearances,  the  same  little  flock  hovers  over  the  wake 
of  the  vessel  from  day  to  day,  and  looks  as  if  it  might 
intend  to  cross  the  ocean  in  company  with  this  particular 
vessel,  These  tinv  little  black-and-white  birds  are  usu- 


SWIMMING-BIRDS. 


267 


ally  called  "Mother  Carey's  Chickens,"  and  they  live  con- 
stantly on  the  water.  Once  in  a  while  they  make  a  dive 
under  the  waves  or  float  for  a  moment  upon  the  surface, 
and  then  resume  their  onward  flight  with  as  much  spirit 
as  before.  They  never  seem  to  grow  weary,  neither  do 
they  seem  to  rest. 

12.  The  Albatross. — The  largest  of  the  swimmers  is  the 
albatross,  a  powerful  bird  with   white  body  and  black 
wings.     It   also   seems   to  delight  in   a  fierce  gale,  and 
skims  over  the  surface  of  the  ocean  without  touching  it. 
It  is,  nevertheless,  an  expert  swimmer  when  it  deigns  to 
light  upon  the  water.     An  albatross  has  been  known  to 
follow  the  course  of  a  ship  in  mid-ocean  for  many  weeks. 

13.  The  Eider-duck,— The  eider-duck,  too,  is  a  real  sea- 
bird,  but  it  does  not  fly  well,  and  its  habits  are  peculiar 
in  many  ways.     Eider-ducks  spend  the   winter  in  large 
flocks  on  the  Arc- 
tic  seas,  but  when 

spring  comes  they 
select  their  mates, 
and  the  happy  pairs 
swim  off  by  them- 
selves to  the  shore. 
The  female  makes 
a  large,  loose  nest 
of  dry  grass  and 
straw,  and  lines  it 
with  a  thick  layer 
of  down  which  she 
has  plucked  from 
her  own  breast.  In 

this  warm  nest  she  lays  from  six  to  ten  pale-green  eggs, 
and  a  supply  of  loose  down  is  generally  placed  near  by 


Fig.  177. — THE  EIDER-DUCK. 


268      ANIMAL    LIFE    IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 


to  cover  the  eggs  with  when  the  hen  is  off  in  search 
of  food. 

14.  The  way  Eider-down  is  Obtained.— Eider  -  down,  as 
you  may  know,  is  very  valuable  on  account  of  its  light- 
ness and  softness.  The  eggs  are  also  valuable,  and  bring 
a  good  price  when  offered  for  sale;  so  it  often  happens 
that  the  natives  of  these  cold  countries  are  on  the  watch 
for  the  nests  about  this  time,  and  carry  them  off  as  soon 
as  they  are  filled  with  eggs.  This  is  the  way  our  eider- 
down is  obtained.  The  mother-bird,  in  her  distress,  makes 
another  nest ;  but  her  down  is  gone,  and  she  has  nothing 
to  line  it  with,  so  her  mate  is  now  obliged  to  strip  the 
down  from  his  breast  also.  The  natives  do  not  disturb 
this  second  nest  which  the  male  has  lined,  for  if  they 
should  destroy  the  nests  too  often  there  might  be  no 
eider-ducks  to  visit  their  shores  by-and-by.  Soon  after 
the  young  ducks  are  hatched  they  are  taken  by  their 

elders  to  the  sea,  where  they 
are  instructed  in  the  arts  of 
swimming  and  diving,  the 
mother  going  down  with  a 
little  one  under  each  wing. 
15.  The  Penguins. — Very 
different  birds  from  these 
are  the  penguins.  Their 
short  legs  are  placed  right 
at  the  end  of  the  body,  so 
they  can  stand  only  in  an 
erect  position,  and  when 
they  attempt  to  walk  their 
bodies  turn  half-way  round 
at  each  step.  Then  those 
Fig.  178.— PENGUIN.  paddle- wings,  hanging  down 


fflP 


SWIMMING-BIRDS. 


269 


at  their  sides  and  covered  with  short  scale-like  feathers, 
are  entirely  useless  for  flying,  but  they  answer  very  well 
in  swimming  and  in  scrambling  upon  the  rocks. 

16.  Penguins  live  only  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere, 
while  their  distant  cousins,  the  auks  and  guillemots,  have 
their  home  in  the  North.  They  spend  most  of  the  time  in 
the  water,  and  are  often  found  at  a  great  distance  from 
land.  When  they  come  on  shore,  and  stand  upright  in 
long  lines,  exposing  their  glistening  white  breasts  to  the 
sunlight,  they  are  said  to  look  like  an  array  of  soldiers. 


Fig.  179.— PKLICANS. 

17.  The  Pelicans. — We  must  not  forget  the  pelicans, 
too,  those  awkward,  ungainly  birds  that  look  almost  too 
heavy  to  fly.  But  they  are  not  very  heavy,  after  all,  for 
their  bones  contain  a  great  many  air-sacs,  and  their  large 
heads  are  nearly  all  bill.  The  curious  bag  that  hangs  un- 
derneath is  only  a  tough,  flabby  skin,  which  makes  a  con- 
venient pouch  for  the  pelican  to  scoop  up  fish  with,  and 


270      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

carry  them  off  to  the  shore  to  be  eaten  at  leisure.  Peli- 
cans are  numerous  on  our  Florida  coasts,  but  they  are 
so  shy  that  you  will  not  find  it  easy  to  get  a  good  look  at 
them.  On  reaching  one  of  the  narrow  strips  of  sandy  isl- 
ands that  skirt  the  shore,  you  will  scarcely  have  caught  a 
glimpse  of  the  pelicans  standing  on  the  beach  before  there 
is  a  whirring  of  broad  wings  and  they  are  gone.  You 
may  not  see  them  in  the  air,  you  may  not  see  them  on 
the  water,  but  after  a  while  you  will  find  that  somehow 
or  other  they  have  reached  another  sand-bar  almost  out  of 
sight;  and  this  is  the  way  they  will  serve  you  again  and 
again. 


WADING-BIRDS. 


271 


XLI. 
WADING-BIRDS   (GRALLATORES). 

SUB-KINGDOM,  VERTEBRATA :   CLASS,  AVES. 

1.  The  Heron  as  a  Type  of  Wading-birds.— -From  the  long 
neck  and  the  long,  naked  legs  of  the  heron  we  may  form 
a  pretty  good  idea  of  what  to  expect  of  all  wading-birds, 


Fig.  180. — HAUNT  OF  THE  HERON. 


272      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


no  matter  how  much  they  may  differ  in  size.  The  long, 
straight  toes  spread  out  very  far  apart,  and  thus  prevent 
the  birds  from  sinking  in  the  soft  mud  as  they  wade  about 
in  shallow  water  near  the  banks  of  rivers  and  marshes. 
Places  like  these  are  the  favorite  haunts  of  the  herons, 
and  here  they  stand  patiently  watching  for  fishes,  frogs, 
and  small  reptiles.  Their  long  necks  are  admirably  suited 
for  reaching  out  to  catch  such  creatures,  and  their  slender 
beaks  quickly  seize  the  prey,  seldom  missing  their  aim. 

2.  Herons  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  they 
form  one  of  the  greatest  ornaments  of  our  Southern  marsh- 
es and  streams.  Their  flight,  however,  is  not  very  grace- 
ful. These  birds  have  no  tails  worth  speaking  of,  so,  when 
flying,  they  always  stretch  out  their  legs  behind  them,  to 
act  as  a  rudder,  while  most  other  birds  tuck  their  legs 

snugly   away   out 
of  sight. 

3.  Cranes. — An- 
other large  and 
elegant  bird  is  the 
crane,  which  is 
sometimes  over 
four  feet  in  height, 
but  otherwise  not 
especially  remark- 
able, unless  it  be 
for  its  long  migra- 
tions twice  every 
year,  and  for  the 
perfect  discipline 
which  is  observed 
on  these  jour- 
neys. 


WADING-BIRDS. 


273 


Fig.  182. — MARABOU  STORK  AND  YOUNG. 

4.  Storks. — Those  of  you  who  have  read  the  interesting 

stories  about  the  storks  that  live  in  European  and  Asiatic 

cities,  and  perhaps  have  yourselves  seen  them  there,  may 

be  surprised  to  learn  that  they  also  are  waders.     These 

19 


274     ANIMAL  LIFE   IN  THE  SEA  AND  ON  THE  LAND. 


city  birds  seem  to  have  given  up  their  aquatic  habits  since 
they  came  to  live  in  towns,  and  now  they  stalk  about  the 

streets  amid  throngs 
of  people,  and  are  not 
the  least  disturbed  by 
them.  The  presence  of 
the  storks  in  these  cit- 
ies is  not  only  toler- 
ated, but,  more  than 
this,  the  birds  are 
highly  valued,  because 
they  feed  upon  gar- 
bage and  small  vermin, 
and  in  this  way  help  to 
keep  the  streets  clean. 
On  account  of  these 
services,  especial  laws 
have  been  made  in 
some  countries  for 
their  protection. 

5.  Their  nests,  placed 

Fig.  183.— STORK'S  NKST.  in  tall  trees,  towers,  or 

chimneys,    are    coarse 

affairs,  loosely  built  of  sticks.  In  Holland  persons  some- 
times make  false  chimneys  to  their  houses  on  purpose  for 
the  storks  to  build  on,  and  that  family  is  considered  fort- 
unate that  has  a  stork's  nest  upon  the  roof.  These  dig- 
nified birds  are  especially  numerous  in  the  Eastern  Hemi- 
sphere. They  assemble  in  large  flocks  before  starting  on 
their  migrations,  and  it  is  a  common  belief  that  at  such 
times  they'  are  consulting  about  their  intended  journey. 

6.  The  Wood  Ibis.— The  beautiful  ibises  are  found  in  all 
warm  countries.     One  species,  the  wood  ibis,  has  gained 


WAUING-BIRDS. 


275 


for  itself  the  reputation  of  being  very  greedy,  and  not 
without  good  cauge,  as  you  will  see.  With  its  strong  bill 
it  kills  a  great  many  small  animals,  which  form  its  favor- 
ite food.  As  these  victims  of  the  voracious  bird  lie  floating 
on  the  water  round  about  the  scene  of  their  destruction, 
the  ibis  swallows  as  many  as  it.  can  well  take,  and  then 
stands  stupidly  on  the  edge  of  the  stream,  waiting  until 
this  meal  is  digested  before  it  is  able  to  indulge  in  another. 

7.  The  Sacred  Ibis.— Tlu-n 
there  is  the  sacred  ibis, 
which  was  worship- 
ped by  the  people     ^ 
of  Egypt  in  olden       ' 
times.      Perhaps 
they  loved  this  bird 
because  it  devour- 
ed the  serpents 
which 


Fig.  184. — THE  SACRED  IBIS. 


276      ANIMAL    LIFE    IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

annoyed  them  so  much,  or  else  because  it  returned  each 
year  at  the  time  of  the  overflow  of  the  Nile  ;  and  the 
superstitious  Egyptians  may  have  thought  they  were  in- 
debted to  the  ibis  for  the  fertility  of  the  country  which 
results  from  this  overflow.  It  is  at  least  certain  that 
they  were  in  the  habit  of  embalming  the  bird  with  their 
mummies,  and  placing  curious  stiff  pictures  of  it  on  their 
monuments. 

8.  Shore-birds. — Among  the  smaller  waders  are  some  of 
our  pretty  little  shore-birds,  whose  quick  movements  are 
so  interesting  to  watch.  Small  flocks  of  these  little  birds 
on  the  beach  may  be  seen  running  out  eagerly  after  a  re- 
treating wave,  snatching  up  tiny  fishes  and  crabs,  and  hur- 
rying along  to  gather  as  many  of  these  dainties  as  possible 
before  the  next  wave  comes  in.  Then  they  all  mount  rap- 
idly into  the  air  to  escape  this  coming  wave,  as  though 
exceedingly  anxious  not  to  wet  their  slender  toes.  Their 
feast  is  interrupted  but  a  few  seconds,  for  they  soon  alight 
and  go  through  the  same  performance. 


RUNNING-BIRDS.  277 


XLII. 
RUNNING-BIRDS    (CURSORES). 

SUB-KINGDOM,  VERTEBRATA  :    CLASS,  AVES. 

1.  Ostriches. — First  among  running-birds  we  may  place 
the  ostriches,  whose  wings  are  remarkably  Small,  and  quite 
useless  as  far  as  flying  is  concerned.     In  fact,  these  great 
heavy  birds  never  do  fly.    Their  bones  are  filled  with  mar- 
row instead  of  containing  those  curious  air-sacs  which  we 
have  noticed  in  flying-birds ;  their  breastbone  has  no  keel 
for  the  attachment  of  wing  muscles,  and  in  several  other 
ways  they  are  deficient  in  those  contrivances  which  enable 
most  birds  to  support  their  own  weight  in  the  air. 

2.  Ostriches  like  those  seen  at  menageries  and  zoolog- 
ical gardens  are  natives  of  the  deserts  of  Africa  and  Ara- 
bia, and  they  are  the  largest  of  all  birds  living  at  the 
present  time.     They  often  measure  eight  feet  in  height. 
Their  long,  stout  legs  are  covered  with  scales,  and  they 
have  but  two  toes,  one  of  which  is  much  longer  than  the 
other,  and  is  armed  with  a  strong  claw.     The  claw  some- 
times inflicts  severe  wrounds,  for  the  ostrich  fights  by  kick- 
ing, and  this  it  does  so  violently  that  it  can  defend  itself 
against  large  and  fierce  animals.     It  also  runs  with  great 
speed,  and  few  animals  can  overtake  it. 

3.  The  deep,  rumbling  voice  of  the  ostrich  is  so  much 
like  the  roar  of  a  lion  that  travellers  have  often  mistaken 
its  harsh  tones  for  that  dreaded  sound.     Lions,  however, 


278      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 

roam  abroad  only  at  night,  and  this  fact  aids  persons  who 
are  familiar  with  the  habits  of  these  two  animals  in  dis- 
tinguishing one  voice  from  the  other.  When  hiding  from 
enemies,  an  ostrich  is  content  with  poking  its  head  out  of 
sight;  this  stupid  habit  often  leads  to  its  capture. 


Fig.  185.— THK  OSTRICH. 

4.  The  Plumage  of  Ostriches. — Judging  merely  from  the 
elegant  ostrich  plumes  which  are  offered  for  sale,  persons 
who  have  not  seen  these  birds  might  naturally  suppose 
that  they  are  covered  with  beautiful  feathers ;  but,  on  the 
contrary,  their  plumage  is  very  thin  and  scanty.  Their 
heads  arid  necks  are  almost  bare,  and  it  is  only  the  quill 
feathers  of  the  tail  and  short  wings  that  supply  the  ostrich 
feathers  of  commerce.  You  will  find,  upon  examining 
these  feathers,  that  the  barbules  do  not  hook  into  each 
other  after  the  usual  manner,  but  each  one  is  quite  free 


RUNNING-BIRDS. 


279 


from  its  neighbors,  thus  flying  apart  loosely,  and  giving 
to  the  plume  a  peculiar  softness  and  beauty. 

5.  The  Nest  and  Eggs. — As  to  the  habits  of  ostriches  in 
their  native  homes,  the  birds  go  together  in  flocks  consist- 
ing of  one  male  and  six  or  seven  females.    The  latter  make 
their  nests  by  scratching  a  hole  in  the  sand,  and  each  one 
lays  from  ten  to  fifteen  eggs.     The  hens  sit  upon  their 
eggs,  as  most  birds  do  ;  but  in  those  warm  countries  of 
which  the  ostrich  is  a  native,  the  heat  of  the  sun  is  so  great 
that  the  eggs  may  be  left  during  the  day  without  injury  ; 
and  as  the  birds  have  to  roam  for  long  distances  in  search 
of  food,  the  nest  often  remains  uncovered  for  several  hours 
at  a  time. 

6.  Some  persons,  having  found  the  nests  thus  apparent- 
ly deserted,  have  formed  the  idea  that  ostriches  take  no 
care  of  their  eggs,  but  leave  them  to  be  hatched  altogether 
bv  the  heat  of  the  sun.     So  far  from  this  being  the  case, 


186. — HUNTING  THE  OSTKICH. 


the  old  birds  are  extremely  careful  of  them,  and  the  male 
will  sometimes  sit  upon  the  nest  himself,  if  he  finds  one 
uncovered.  After  the  brood  is  hatched,  those  eggs  that 
have  not  developed,  or  that  have  become  addled  from  any 


280      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 

cause,  are  broken  open  by  the  mother,  who  feeds  her  young 
birds  upon  the  contents. 

7.  The  Size  of  the  Egg. — One  single  ostrich  egg  weighs 
about  three  pounds,  and  is  thought  to  contain  as  much  food 
as  one  dozen  ordinary  hen's  eggs.     The  natives  roast  these 
huge  eggs  in  the  shell  by  sticking  one  end  in  hot  ashes, 
and  making  a  hole  in  the  upper  end  of  the  shell,  through 
which  they  stir  the  contents  with  a  stick.     They  also  use 
the  strong,  thick  shells,  after  they  have  been  emptied,  for 
drinking-cups. 

8.  Ostrich  -  farming.  —  In  the  southern  part  of  Africa 
many  persons  are  employed  in  a  kind  of  business  called 
ostrich  -  farming.      It    is   found  very   profitable   to   raise 
ostriches  for  the  sake  of  their  plumes,  which  are  pulled 
once  in  every  eight  months.     These  always  bring  a  good 
price,  and  so,  likewise,  do  the  birds  and  eggs  when  they 
are  offered  for  sale.     Were  it  not  for  caring  in  this  way 
for  the  ostriches,  and  thus  increasing  their  numbers,  it  is 
thought  they  would  soon  have  been  destroyed  upon  their 
native    deserts.      Ostriches   have    also   been    successfully 
raised  in  California  within  the  last  few  years. 

9.  An  ostrich  farm  is  merely  a  large  grassy  enclosure 
in  which  are  placed  a  few  ostriches.     It  is  customary  to 
hatch  the  eggs  by  means   of  an  "incubator,"  it  having 
been  found  that  the  important  point  in  hatching  eggs  is 
to  keep  them  constantly  at  the  same  temperature  as  the 
body  of  the  bird  when  she  is  sitting.     For.  this  purpose  a 
large  chest  is  used  with  sliding  drawers,  between  which 
are    vats   filled  with    hot  water.     The    eggs   are    snugly 
wrapped  in  flannel  and  placed  in  the  drawers,  where  they 
remain  six  weeks  before  hatching,  and  great  care  is  taken 
to  imitate  the  natural  method  as  closely  as  possible. 

10.  The  Rhea. — A  smaller  ostrich  than  the  one  we  have 


RUNNING-BIRDS.  281 

been  speaking  of,  called  the  rhea,  is  found  in  South  Amer- 
ica. It  lives  in  flocks  on  the  pampas,  and  is  about  one  half 
the  size  of  the  African  ostrich. 

11.  The  Emu. — Another  singular  bird  is  the  emu,  which 
is  found  only  in  Australia.  It  is  nearly  as  large  as  the 
ostrich,  but  it  is  not  perched  upon  such  long  legs,  and  it 


Fig.  187. — EMU  AND  WOJ/VES, 


282      ANIMAL    LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


has  three  toes  on  each  foot.  This  is  the  only  one  of  the 
running-birds  that  wanders  about  in  pairs,  and  its  large 
eggs  are  of  a  beautiful  dark  green  color. 

12.  The  Cassowary. — Running  -  birds  are  not  numerous, 
and,  as  you  may  have  noticed,  each  species  that  we  have 
mentioned  so  far  is  confined  to  a  limited  extent  of  coun- 
try. This  is  also  true  of  the  cassowary,  which  inhabits 
New  Guinea  and  the  Molucca  Islands.  The  black  plu- 
mage of  this  bird  resem- 
bles the  hair  of  a  horse's 
mane,  and  its  head  is 
very  conspicuous,  with 
a  horny  crest  on  top, 
while  the  naked  throat 
is  ornamented  with  red 
und  blue  wattles  hang- 
ing in  front.  Its  wings 
are  extremely  small,  and 
they  are  armed  with  five 
naked  quills. 

13.  The  Apteryx.— 
Most  curious  of  all  the 
running-birds  is  the  ap- 
teryx,  which  is  found 
nowhere  but  in  New 

It  has  no  tail,  and  the  stumpy  wings  are  quite 
hidden  by  its  plumage.  It  digs  a  deep  hole  in  the  ground 
in  which  to  deposit  its  one  egg,  and  it  frequently  runs  to 
this  hole  for  protection  when  it  is  pursued.  The  apteryx 
seems  to  be  a  shy  bird,  hiding  by  day,  and  roaming  about 
at  night  to  hunt  for  insects  and  worms. 

14.  Why  Fossil  Birds  are  Rare.— Fossil  remains  of  birds 
are  by  no  means  abundant,  perhaps  from  the  fact  that 


Fig.  188.— THK  APTKHYX. 


Zealand. 


RUNNING-BIRDS.  283 

most  of  the  rocks  in  which  we  find  fossils  were  formed 
in  water.  Now  how  can  this  fact  make  any  difference 
in  the  number  of  fossil  birds  contained  in  the  rocks  ? 
Let  us  imagine  the  case  of  a  bird,  in  times  long  past, 
having  fallen  into  the  water  at  some  place  that  would  be 
favorable  for  preserving  it  in  a  fossil  condition ;  instead  of 
sinking  to  the  bottom,  where  it  might  soon  be  covered  with 
mud  and  trash,  we  know  that  the  lightness  of  the  bird's 
bones  would  cause  the  body  to  float,  and  that  in  this  ex- 
posed situation  it  would  probably  be  devoured  by  some 
hungry  animals,  and  all  traces  of  the  bird  would  thus  be 
wiped  out.  This  is  thought  to  be  one  reason  that  fossil 
birds  are  so  seldom  discovered.  If  our  imaginary  bird 
had  been  a  heavy  body  it  would  have  sunk.  Perhaps  it 
would  be  covered  with  sediment,  and  after  a  very  long 
period  of  time  it  might  become  embedded  in  solid  rock, 
and  thus  be  preserved  as  the  remains  of  so  many  animals 
have  been. 

15.  Some  Large  Fossils, — Among  those  fossils  which 
have  been  found,  however,  are  some  ostrich  -  like  birds, 
much  larger  than  any  now  living  upon  our  earth.  A  gi- 
gantic bird  twice  the  size  of  an  ostrich  is  found  to  have 
lived  in  olden  times  in  New  Mexico.  Fossils  of  another 
bird,  called  the  moa,  twelve  feet  in  height,  have  also  been( 
found  in  New  Zealand. 


284      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE  SEA  AKD   ON  THE   LAND. 


XLITI. 
SCRATCHING-BIRDS 

SUB-KINGDOM,  VERTEBRATA:    CLASS,  AVES. 

1.  Our  Common  Fowls  typical  Scratching  -  birds.  —  Our 
common  fowls,  scratching  in  the  garden  with  their  strong 
blunt  claws,  and  calling  their  little  broods  to   share  the 
dainties  they  have  found  there,  may  furnish  an  illustration 
of  this  class  of  birds.     They  pass  most  of  the  time  upon 
the  ground,  as  we  know,  and  seldom  fly  higher  than  is  re- 
quired to  reach  their  roosting -place,  consequently  their 
wings  are  weak,  and  they  make  a  peculiar  whirring  sound 
when  they  attempt  to  fly. 

2.  The  scratching-birds  mostly  wander  about  in  flocks, 
one  male  accompanying  each  flock,  and  taking  no  part  in 
building  the  nests  or  helping  to  raise  the  young  birds. 
Their  nests  are  usually  upon  the  ground,  and  the  pretty,, 
downy  little  chicks  are  able  to  run  about  as  soon  as  they 
leave  the  egg. 

3.  Although  these  birds  scratch  in  the  earth  for  worms, 
their  food  consists  chiefly  of  hard  grains  and  seeds  which 
are   not  easily  digested,  and  they   have,  therefore,  large 
crops  and  strong,  muscular  gizzards. 

4.  Turkeys  and  Pea -fowls.  —  Turkeys,  which   are   still 
found  wild  in,  some  parts  of  North  America,  are  scratch- 
ing-birds ;  so  also  are  the  gorgeous  pea-fowls  from  India. 
The  male  bird,  or  peacock,  as  he  is  called,  is  celebrated  for 


SCKATCIIING-BIKDS. 


285 


his  long  train  of  feathers  decorated  with  eye-like  spots  of 
metallic  colors.  The  upper  feathers  composing  the  train 
are  shorter  than  those  beneath  them,  and  in  consequence 
of  this  arrangement  the  spots  near  their  tips  are  all  dis- 


Fig.  189. — I'KACOCK. 

played,  making  a  magnificent  array  of  feathers,  long 
enough  to  trail  for  some  distance  on  the  ground ;  but,  in 
stepping,  the  peacock  lifts  it  slightly  to  prevent  its  drag- 
ging. Altogether  his  movements  are  such  as  to  give  an 
observer  the  idea  that  he  never  wholly  forgets  his  hand- 


286      ANIMAL    LIFE    IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


some  train.     To  manage  and  display  such  a  train  is  cer- 
tainly no  slight  matter.     Then  see  him  take  some  stately 

position  and  slowly 
bend  his  head  from 
side  to  side,  as  if  to 
give  the  full  benefit 
of  the  sunlight  to  his 
glistening  neck  and 
breast,  and  you  will 
not  wonder  he  has 
been  called  a  proud 
bird. 

5.  When  a  sudden 
fancy  takes  him,  the 
peacock  can  lift  up 
his  tail  into  the  air, 
and  spread  out  the 
feathers  into  a  broad 
fan,  and,  if  he  wishes 
to,  he  can  rattle  the 
shafts  of  the  feath- 
ers together  so  as 
to  make  a  peculiar 
noise.  The  hen  looks 
very  meek  beside  her 
mate.  She  has  no  train  at  all,  and  her  plumage  is  a 
modest  brown,  while  the  prevailing  colors  of  the  male 
are  blue  and  green. 

6.  Pheasants  and  their  Protective  Mimicry. — Pheasants 
are  also  found  in  Asia,  and  there  they  are  brilliant  birds, 
although  our  pheasants  are  of  a  sombre  color.  The 
golden  and  the  silver  pheasants  and  the  argus  are  all 
exceedingly  handsome.  These  gayly  colored  scratching- 


Fig.  190. — ARGUS  PHEASANT. 


SCRATCHING-BIRDS. 


287 


birds,  such  as  peacocks  and  pheasants,  are  mostly  jungle- 
birds  of  tropical  lands,  and  their  brilliant  hues  blend  well 
with  the  bright  flowers  and  the  pretty  fruits  and  berries 
upon  which  they  feed.  On  the  other  hand,  partridges, 
guinea-fowls,  and  scratching-birds  in  general,  have  a  din- 
gy, spotted  plumage,  resembling  the  ground  upon  which 
they  sit  or  run,  and  by  this  means  they  escape  the  notice 


Fig.  191. — IMPEYAN  PHEASANTS.     INDIA. 


288      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 

of  birds  of  prey,  to   whose  attacks  they  are  much  ex- 
posed. 

7.  Where  Partridges  build  their  Nests.; — Partridges,  of 
which  we  have  just  spoken,  pass  the  winter  in  our  fields 


Fig.  192.— A  PARTRIDGE. 

and  meadows.  Early  in  the  spring  they  select  their  mates, 
and  begin  to  build  their  simple  nests  close  by  the  root  of 
some  tuft  of  grass  or  corn-stalks.  The  nest  occupies  a 
slight  depression  in  the  ground,  and  is  often  placed  where 
overhanging  grasses  naturally  conceal  it  and  the  fifteen 
or  twenty  beautiful  eggs  which  it  holds. 

8.  The  Young  Brood. — Young  partridges  are  very  active, 
and  they  no  sooner  leave  the  shell  than  they  start  off  to 
run,  following  their  mother  like  a  brood  of  chickens,  and 
nestling  under  her  wings  when  she  is  at  rest.  It  is  well 
they  can  run,  for  if  they  were  not  able  thus  to  take  care 
of  themselves,  these  tiny  little  birds  in  their  open  home 
on  the  ground  would  stand  a  poor  chance  for  life.  The 


SCRATCHING-BIRDS. 


989 


cunning  mother  does  what  she  can  to  ward  off  danger  to 
her  little  ones  by  pretending  lameness,  in  order  to  entice 
foes  away  from  her  nest.  When  alarmed,  she  makes  a 
noise  to  attract  attention,  then  throws  herself  on  the 
ground  in  full  sight  and  flutters  along,  dragging  her 
wings  as  if  severely  wounded.  After  she  has  led  her  pur- 
suers far  enough  from  the  nest,  her  object  is  accomplished, 
and  she  then  starts  up  and  flies  away  in  as  good  condition 
as  ever. 

9.  Both  the  parents  and  the  young  brood  remain  to- 
gether until  the  following  spring,  and  form  what  is  called 
a  "covey."  They  are  ordinarily  found  running  in  open 
fields  or  along  fences  sheltered  by  thickets,  where  plenty 
of  seeds  are  hangingMipon  the  weeds  and  bushes,  and  fur- 


Fig.  193. — PAKTUIDUKS  IN  WINTER. 


20 


290      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE  SEA   AND   ON  THE   LAND. 

nish  abundant  food  even  in  winter-time.  When  it  storms, 
the  birds  hide  away  in  sheltered  nooks,  or  creep  in  among 
thick  bushes,  huddling  close  together  for  warmth. 

10.  Quails.  —  Quails  are  smaller  than  partridges,  but 
their  habits  are  similar,  and  their  clear  call  of  "  Bob 
White"  is  familiar  to  most  persons.  Our  quails  and  par- 
tridges both  differ  from  the  English  birds  bearing  the 
same  name. 


Fig.  194. — THK  QUAIL  AND  HER  NEST. 

11.  Pigeons. — Pigeons  also  are  placed  among  scratching- 
birds,  although,  in  development,  they  are  greatly  in  ad- 
vance of  others  of  the  class,  for  they  are  good  fliers,  they 
have  slender  toes  for  perching,  and  they  build  their  nests 
in  trees.  Another  striking  difference  may  be  noticed  in 
the  young  birds,  a  newly  -  born  squab  being  perfectly 
naked,  and  as  helpless  and  uninteresting  as  can  well  be 
imagined.  It  is,  nevertheless,  an  object  of  tender  care 
with  its  parents,  both  of  whom  secrete  in  their  crops  a 
soft,  milky  substance  with  which  to  feed  their  little  ones. 
Taking  the  bills  of  the  young  birds  within  their  own 
mouths,  the  parents  force  this  partly  digested  food  down 
the  throats  of  the  squabs. 


SCRATCHING-BIRDS. 


291 


12.  Wild  Pigeons.  —  The  wild  or  passenger  pigeons  of 
North  America  associate  in  large  flocks.  Millions  of  these 
birds  sometimes  occupy  one  roost  in  a  forest,  and  they 
are  described  as  frequently  breaking  the  branches  of  the 
trees  with  their  weight.  Passenger  pigeons  fly  hundreds 
of  miles  to  their  feeding-grounds  and  return  at  night  to 


Fig.  195.— A  PIGEON-LOFT, 


292      ANIMAL   LIFE    IN   THE    SEA   AND    ON    THE    LAND. 

their  nests,  each  bird  finding  its  own  without  difficulty. 
In  their  migrations  they  till  the  air  like  a  cloud,  and,  al- 
though their  flight  is  rapid,  the  size  of  the  flock  is  so  great 
that  it  is  a  long  time  in  passing  any  one  point. 

13.  Tame  Pigeons. — We  are,  however,  most  interested  in 
the  tame  pigeons,  and  we  find  the  domestic  habits  of  these 
birds  very  attractive.     Having  once  selected  their  mates, 
they  remain  true  to  each  other  for  life,  and  both  birds  as- 
sist in  building  the  nest  and  in  sitting  upon  the  eggs. 
There  are  never  more  than  two  eggs  at  a  time  in  the  nest, 
but  several  broods  are  raised  during  the  year. 

14.  Altogether,  these  birds  make  most  satisfactory  pets, 
and  the  fancy  for  keeping  pigeons  dates  back  to  very 
ancient  times.     It  is  estimated  that  there  are  at  least  one 
hundred  different  breeds  of  tame  pigeons,  and  the  peculi- 
arities and  fine  points  of  these  varieties  have  been  careful- 
ly cultivated  by  "  pigeon  -  fanciers."     Perhaps  you  may 
recognize  in  the  picture  of  a  pigeon-loft  on  the  preceding 
page  some  of  the  familiar  breeds,  among  which  are  the 
fantails   and  the  funny  pouters,  with  their  crops  puffed 
out  so  far  as  nearly  to  hide  the  head.     All  our  domestic 
breeds  are  thought  to  have  descended  originally  from  the 
rock -pigeon,  which  is  still  found  wild  in  Europe. 

15.  The  Carrier-pigeon. — The  carrier-pigeon  is  one  of  the 
most  popular  fancy  pigeons,  and  sells  for  a  high   price. 
This  aristocratic  bird  was  employed  in  olden  times  to  car- 
ry messages  for  kings  and  princes,  but  in  these  days  it  is 
kept  merely  as  an  ornament,  and  is  carefully  shielded  from 
exposure  to  the  weather.     The  homing  -  pigeon,  a  much 
smaller  and  plainer  bird,  is  now  sometimes  trained  as  a 
message  bearer.     The  homing-pigeon  seems  to  have  a  nat- 
ural facility  for  finding  its  way,  owing  probably  to  the 
cultivation   of  its   ancestors   for   many  generations,  yet, 


SCRATCH  I  NG-BlRDS. 


293 


notwithstanding  this  inherited  tendency,  each  young  bird 
requires  careful  training  before  it  becomes  expert. 

16.  The  Training  of  Pigeons.  —  This  training  is  begun 
while  the  pigeons  are  very  young,  by  taking  them  a  short 
distance   from   their    cot    and   setting   them   at   liberty. 
Rising  into  the 

air  and  looking 
about  them,  the 
birds  see  their 
home  and  fly  to 
it.  Day  after  day 
they  are  taken  out 
in  the  same  direc- 
tion, each  time  a 
little  farther  from 
home,  and  they 
fly  back  to  their 
cot  as  before. 
After  a  long  pe- 
riod of  training 
they  become  so  /-//.V^S^! 

familiar  with  the 
route  that  they 
will  return  from 
great  distances, 
but  this  training 
must  have  been  in 
one  direction,  and  in  clear  weather.  These  pigeons  do 
not  start  home  in  a  fog,  and  if  overtaken  by  night  they 
stop  on  the  way  and  do  not  continue  their  journey  until 
morning. 

17.  The  Dodo. — The  curious  dodo,  which  formerly  lived 
on  the   island  of  Mauritius,  was   closely  related  to  the 


Fig.  196.  —  DODO  (IN   THE   FOREGROUND)  AND 
APTERYX. 


294      ANIMAL   LIFE    IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON    THE    LAND. 

pigeon.  This  bird  was  rather  larger  than  a  swan,  with 
soft  plumes  on  its  wings  and  tail,  and  it  was  wholly  un- 
able to  fly.  There  are  no  dodos  living  at  the  present  time, 
but  they  appear  to  have  lived  until  quite  recently,  and 
there  are  two  or  three  old  oil-paintings  representing  these 
interesting  birds.  These  paintings  and  a  few  bones  and 
feathers  are  all  that  remain  to  tell  of  the  former  existence 
of  the  dodo. 


§ 


Fig.  197. — BIKDS  OF  A  FEATHER. 


CLIMBING-BIRDS. 


295 


" 


XLIV. 
CLIMBING-BIRDS    (S  CAPS  OSES). 

SUB-KINGDOM,  VERTEBRATA.  CLASS,  AVE8. 

1.  Climbing-birds. — Next  in  order  after  the  scratchers 
is  placed  a  group  of  birds  whose  tastes  prompt  them  to 
leave  the  ground  and 

climb  up  into  the  trees, 
as  parrots  and  wood- 
peckers do.  The  climb- 
ing-birds feed  upon  in- 
sects or  fruit,  and  build 
their  nests  in  holes  in 
the  tree -trunks,  and, 
being  naturally  poor 
fliers,  they  prefer  to 
pass  most  of  their  time 
among  the  branches. 
Their  toes  are  well 

suited  to  this  kind  of  life,  since  they  are  arranged 
in  pairs — one  pair  on  the  front  of  the  foot,  and  the 
other  pair  behind  (Fig.  199),  thus  enabling  them  to 
grasp  the  boughs  firmly. 

2.  Parrots,  —  But  parrots   do   not  depend  upon 
their  toes  alone  in  climbing;  their  strong,  hooked 
bills  are  also  brought  into  service,  and  they  use 
them  in  such  a  way  as  almost  to  supply  the  place 


296      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 


of  a  third  foot.     The  soft,  fleshy  tongue  of  a  parrot  is 

unlike  that  of  other  birds,  for  it  may  be  moved  in  any 

direction,  and  it  is  partly  on 

this   account  that  parrots  can 

be  taught  to  imitate  the  human 

voice.      Their   tones,  however, 

are  shrill  and  harsh,  and  they 

have  generally  but  few  words 

in    which    to    utter    their    set 

phrases. 

3.  The  forests  of  South  Amer- 
ica and  Australia  are  especially 
rich  in  parrots,  and  the  plum- 
age of  these  tropical  birds  is 
remarkably  brilliant.    Green  is 
often  the  prevailng  color,  but 
in  some  species-  the  red  tints 
predominate. 

4.  The  Woodpecker's  Search  for  Food.  —  Quite  different 
from  the  parrots  are  the  active  little  woodpeckers,  which 
we  mostly  see  standing  upright  on  the  tree-trunks,  with 
the  stiff  points  of  their  tail-feathers  pressed  against  the 

trunk.  Sup- 
ported in  this 
way,  the  birds 
hop  up  the 
trees  by  a 
succession  of 
quick  jumps, 
making  the 
while  a  pecul- 
iar tapping  sound  by  striking  the  beak  upon  the  tree. 
They  are  now  hunting  for  insects  and  grubs  hidden  be- 


Fig.  199.— FOOT  OF  PARROT. 


1.  200. — TONGUE  OF  WOODPECKER. 


CLIMBING-BIRDS. 


297 


neath  the  bark.  When  a  hollow  sound  proceeds  from 
this  tapping,  the  bird  is  encouraged  to  drill  a  hole  into 
the  bark  with  its  long,  straight  beak,  hoping  to  find  its 
favorite  food.  If  the  search  is  successful,  the  woodpecker 


Fig.  201. — WOODPECKERS  AT  HOME. 

then  puts  out  its  sticky  tongue,  which  is  armed  near  the 
end  with  sharp  barbs,  pointed  backward  like  a  fish-hook 
(Fig.  200),  and  draws  the  insect  from  its  lodging-place. 
This  curious  tongue  is  fastened  to  cartilages  which  ex- 


298      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

tend  up  back  of  the  skull  and  over  to  the  forehead,  and 
in  consequence  of  this  arrangement  the  tongue  can  be 
thrust  out  some  distance  beyond  the  beak. 

5.  The  limbs  of  apple-trees  and  maples  are  sometimes 
found  pierced  by  rows  of  little  holes,  extending  in  rings, 


Fig.  202. — WOODPECKER'S  NEST. 

one  above  another,  quite  around  the  stem,  and  it  is  sup- 
posed that  the  woodpeckers  have  bored  these  holes  to  get 
at  the  sap  in  winter  —  a  plan  somewhat  similar  to  that 
practised  by  farmers  in  obtaining  the  sap  from  whicli  to 
make  maple-sugar. 
6.  The  Snug  Home  of  the  Woodpecker,  — Many  of  our 


CLIMBING-BIRDS. 


299 


woodpeckers  excavate  holes  in  trees  in  which  to  pass  the 
winter,  taking-  the  precaution  to  select  a  spot  which  is, 
sheltered  from  rain  and  snow  by  an  overhanging  branch. 
Such  cavities  make  snug,  warm  homes,  but  when  spring 
comes  the  woodpecker  leaves  its  winter-quarters,  and  hol- 
lows out  a  new  nest  in 
the  solid  live  wood  of 
the  tree-trunk,  carefully 
chipping  away  the  in- 
ner surface  to  give  it  a 
smooth  finish.  In  Fig. 
202  you  see  the  entrances 
to  two  nests.  That  part 
of  the  trunk  nearest  to 
us  has  been  cut  away  so 
as  to  show  one  of  these 
nests  inside  of  the  tree. 
The  circular  entrance  to 
the  nest  is  merely  large 
enough  to  admit  the 
bird,  and  after  extend- 
ing some  distance  with- 
in the  tree  the  tunnel 
turns  downward  and  en- 
larges into  the  shape  of 
a  long  pear.  The  pure 

white  eggs  are  laid  on  the  chips  at  the  bottom  of  this  nest. 
7.  The  Cuckoo  an  Intruder. — The  European  cuckoo  has 
found  an  easier  plan  than  this,  for  she  builds  no  nest  at 
all.  In  fact,  she  lays  her  eggs  in  the  nests  of  other  birds, 
and  has  the  assurance  to  leave  them  there  to  be  hatched. 
Generally  she  deposits  but  one  egg  in  a  nest,  and  the 
young  cuckoo  is  brought  up  by  its  foster-parents  at  the 


/ 


Fig.  203.— TOUCAN. 


300      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN  THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


Fig.  204. — TROGON  ELEGANS. 


expense  of  their  own 
young,  for  this  in- 
truder soon  mani- 
fests the  selfish  dis- 
position of  its  race, 
and  slyly  tosses  the 
rightful  occupants  out 
of  the  nest.  This  pe- 
culiar habit  of  appro- 
priating the  nests  of 
other  birds  is  possess- 
ed also  by  the  cow- 
bunting  of  America, 
but  our  cuckoo  makes 
a  nest  and  raises  her 
young  ones  in  the 
usual  way. 

8.  The  Toucan.— The 
enormous  bill  of  the 
toucan  is  not  as  heavy 
as  one  might  suppose, 
for  instead  of  being 
solid  it  is  hollowed 
out  to  contain  a  great 
many  air  -  cells.  Its 
shape,  too,  is  admira- 
ble for  robbing  nests 
and  deep  holes  of  the 
eggs  and  young  birds 
on  which  the  toucan 
feeds,  tossing  them 
first  in  the  air  and 
catching  them  as  they 


CLIMBING-BIRDS.  301 

fall.  Neither  is  the  bill  too  large  to  be  snugly  tucked 
away  among  the  feathers  when  the  bird  is  preparing  for 
sleep.  Toucans  are  confined  to  the  tropical  regions  of 
South  America,  where  they  assemble  in  large  flocks. 

9.  Trogons, — Trogons  are  also  tropical  birds,  chiefly  re- 
markable for  the  beauty  of  their  plumage,  which  is  loose 
and  richly  colored.  They  live  in  the  deep  recesses  of  the 
forests,  and  sit  motionless  on  the  branches  watching  for 
insects. 


302      ANIMAL    LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON    THE   LAND. 


XLV. 
PERCHING-BIRDS   (!NSESSORES). 

SUB-KINGDOM,  VERTEBRATA:   CLASS,  AVES. 

1.  Perching-birds. — Perching-birds  also  live  in  the  trees, 
and  build  among  the  branches,  displaying  great  skill  in 
the    construction    of  their  nests.      They   are   unlike  the 
climbers,  however,  in   having   slender,  flexible  toes  with 
long  claws,  well  suited  to  the  delicate  labor  of  nest  build- 
ing, and  their  legs  are  so  weak  that  these  graceful  creat- 
ures have  a  dainty  way  of  hopping  instead  of  walking. 

2.  Robins. — We  shall  find  among  the  perchers  some  of 
the  most  attractive  birds  of  our  fields  and  gardens.     The 
robins,  for  instance,  are  always  welcome,  partly  because 
they  come  so  early  in  the  spring  and  stay  with  us  until 
late  in  the  fall,  and  partly  because  they  prefer  to  build 
their  nests  in  the  trees    and  orchards   near   our  homes. 
Coarse  and  rough  as  these  nests  are,  they  contain  four 
beautiful  greenish-blue  eggs,  and  two  or  three  broods  are 
generally  raised  in  one  summer. 

3.  Robins  devour  a  great  many  insects,,  and  in  this  way 
render  valuable  service  to  the  farmer.     A  young  robin  in 
the  nest  is  said  to  consume  more  than  its  own  weight  of 
food  each  day,  and  as  this  food  consists  largely  of  insects, 
we  may  form  some  idea  of  the  great  number  that  must  be 
destroyed  in  feeding  the  whole  family. 

4.  The  Baltimore  Oriole. — The  Baltimore  oriole  is  a  gay 
bird,  with  rich  orange  and  black  colors.     The  female  bird 


Fig.  205.— ORIOLE  FEEDING  ITS  MATE. 

has  the  same  markings  as  the  male,  although  in  duller 
tints,  and  a  pair  of  these  birds  forms  a  handsome  orna- 
ment to  a  lawn.  The  males  arrive  first  from  the  South, 
and  are  joined  a  week  later  by  the  females ;  at  this  time 


304      ANIMAL   LIFE    IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

they  are  full  of  song,  and  ready  to  devote  themselves  im- 
mediately to  wooing  and  trying  to  secure  a  mate. 

5.  The  Nest  of  the  Oriole.— The  hanging  nest  of  the  Bal- 
timore oriole,  as  well  as  that  of  the  robin,  is  mostly  built 
near  the  house.     It  is  suspended  from  two  or  more  twigs 
by  strings  and  threads,  and  through  these  threads  a  coarse 
fabric  is  woven  into  the  form  of  a  pouch,  inside  of  which 
is  placed  the  true  nest  of  fine  grass  or  hair. 

6.  Song-sparrows. — Among  the  commonest  of  our  sum- 
mer visitors  are  the  little  song-sparrows,  w^hose  cheery, 
melodious  note  is  repeated  over  and  over  through  the 
long  spring  days,  from  early  in  the  morning  until  nearly 
dark.     Their  snug  little  nests  are  generally  hidden  away 
in  a  grassy  bank,  or  placed  on   some  low  vine  or  bush, 
the  male  carrying  the  materials  for  building  it,  while  the 
female  weaves  the  nest.     He  is  attentive  to  his  mate,  and 
when  their  home  is  completed,  and  the  female  sits  content- 
edly upon  her  eggs,  he  brings  her  food  and  lingers  near  by 
to  cheer  her  with  his  song. 

7.  The  Snow-bird.  —  The  snow-bird  is  another  of  the 
sparrows.     These  brave  little  birds  stay  with  us  through 
the  cold  winter,  when  most  other  birds  have  left,  but  upon 
the  approach  of  spring  they  fly  off  to  Canada  or  some  oth- 
er northern  country  to  raise  their  young  ones. 

8.  Yellow-birds. — Our  pretty  yellow-birds,  or  goldfinch- 
*es,  also  stay  with  us  through  the  cold  weather,  but  their 
appearance  at  this  season  is  so  altered  by  their  plain  win- 
ter garb  that  they  are  scarcely  recognized  as  the  same 
bird,  and  we  might  easily  fancy  that  the  yellow-birds  had 
all  left  us.     When  spring  comes  they  again  assume  their 
gay  coats  of  yellow  and  black,  enlivening  the  landscape 
with    their  bright   colors   and  delighting   us   with  their 
sweet   songs.       These   birds   are   fond   of   thistle  -  seeds, 


PERCH  ING-BIKDS. 


305 


Fig.  206. — FROLIC  IN  THE  SNOW. 

and,  perched  upon  the  branches  of  the  prickly  thistle, 
they  soon  tear  to  pieces  the  downy  balls  to  obtain  the 
seeds  crowded  together  at  the  centre. 


306      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE  SEA   AND   ON  THE   LAND. 

9.  The  Crossbill.  —  That  peculiar,  crooked  beak  of  the 
crossbill  (Fig.  208)  looks  like  a  deformity,  but  an  acquaint- 
ance with  the  habits  of  the  bird  shows  that  its  bill  is  well 
suited  to  tear  apart  tough  pine-cones  in  order  to  reach  the 
seeds  which  form  its  food.  Clinging  to  a  twig  of  a  pine- 


Fig.  207. — SUMMER  YELLOW-BIRDS. 


tree  with  one  foot,  it  grasps  a  cone  with  the  other  ;  then  in- 
serting its  bill  underneath  the  scales,  it  pries  them  apart  by 
a  sidewise  motion,  and  scoops  out  the  seeds  with  its  tongue. 
10.  Crossbills  are  bright,  happy  birds.  They  fly  in 
small  flocks,  often  visiting  our  gardens  and  flitting  among 
the  evergreens;  but  their  movements  are  very  quick,  and 
they  suddenly  dart  off  as  unexpectedly  as  they  came. 


PERCHING-BIRDS. 


307 


11.  The  Hornbills. — The  hornbills  of  Africa  and  South- 
ern Asia  are  conspicuous  for  the  great  size  of  their  bills, 
which,  however,  are  so  filled  with  air-cavities  as  to  be  very 
light. 

12.  The  nest-building  habits  of  the  two-horned  hornbill 
are  exceedingly  odd,  as  you  will  infer  from  the  following 


Fig.  208. — THE  CUOSSBILL. 

picture  (Fig.  209).  Having  selected  a  hollow  tree,  the 
female  takes  her  place  within  the  hole  and  makes  a  nest 
of  her  own  feathers,  while  the  male  from  the  outside  plas- 
ters up  the  hole  with  mud,  leaving  only  a  small  opening 
for  the  beak  of  the  imprisoned  female.  Through  this  hole 
she  is  fed  by  her  mate  until  her  young  family  is  fully 
fledged,  and  during  this  time  she  requires  constant  care 
from  her  attentive  companion  to  satisfy  her  ravenous 
appetite. 

13.  Birds -of -paradise. — Birds- of -paradise  live  only  in 
New  Guinea  and  the  neighboring  islands,  and  here  twenty 


308      ANIMAL   LIFE    IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON    THE   LAND. 


:; 


Fig.  209. — TWO-HORNED  HORNBILL  FEEDING  ITS  MATE. 
different  species  of  these  beautiful  birds  are  found.     The 
ordinary  bird s-of -paradise  most  familiar  to  us  are  admired 
for  the  plumes  of  downy  golden  feathers  growing  beneath 
their  wings,  and  large  numbers  are  killed  to  supply  the 


I'ERCHtNG-BtRDS. 


309 


milliner's  trade.     The  natives  who  capture  them  usually 
cut  off  their  legs,  and  this  may  have  given  rise  to  the 


W  Fig.  210. — BlRD-OF-PARADISE. 

mistaken  notion    of   olden 
times  that  these  birds  have 
no  legs,  that  they  suspend  them- 
selves by  their  long  feathers,  and 
that  they  never  touch  the  earth  while 
alive. 

14.  The  Bower-bird. — Another  inter- 
esting bird  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere  is  the  bower-bird 
of  Australia.  Its  chief  peculiarity  consists  in  the  curious 
bowers  which  it  builds  of  closely  interwoven  branches  and 
twigs,  drawn  together  so  as  to  meet  at  the  top.  The  en- 
trance is  brushed  perfectly  clean,  and  decorated  with 
bright  pebbles,  shells,  feathers,  little  bleached  skeletons, 


310      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 


Fig.  211. — PLAY-HOUSE  OF  BOWER-BIRD. 

and  other  ornamental  articles,  some  of  which  must  evi- 
dently have  been  carried  for  a  long  distance.  These 
bowers  are  entirely  separate  from  their  nests,  and  are 
used  only  as  play-grounds,  where  a  festive  throng  assem- 
bles, apparently  to  exhibit  their  charms  to  the  birds 
whose  affections  they  hope  to  win.  The  males  strut  up 


PERCHING-BIRDS. 


311 


and  down  in  a  stately  fashion,  and  do  their  best  to  display 
their  fine  forms  and  graceful  movements  to  the  females 
that  are  quietly  looking  on. 

15.  The  Shrike. — The  shrike,  or  butcher-bird,  as  it  is 
often  called,  has  a  singular  habit  of  hanging  small  birds, 
mice,  and  insects 

upon  the  thorns 
and  twigs  of  trees, 
as  a  means  of  pre- 
serving them  for 
future  use,  having 
captured  more 
prey  than  it  can 
possibly  eat  at 
one  time. 

16.  Wrens. - 
Then   there   are 
the  wrens — busy, 
fussy  little  creat- 
ures,      hopping 
about  our  bird- 
boxes  with  tails 
erect,  and  fight- 
ing and  scolding 
other   birds    that 
are  thought  to  be 

trespassing    upon  p.g  212  _HousE.WRENS. 

their  possessions. 

Almost  any  hole  will  answer  for  a  nest,  and  after  it  is 

stuffed  with  twigs  and  rubbish,  six  or  seven  brick-colored 

eggs  are  laid  in  the  centre  of  the  mass. 

17.  Humming-birds. — Our  pretty  little  humming-birds 
belong  exclusively  to  America,  and  are  greatly  admired 


312      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN    THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 

for  their  small  size,  as  well  as  for  the  metallic  lustre  of 
their  plumage.  Their  throats  are  especially  brilliant,  and 
are  often  adorned  with  a  variety  of  beautiful  colors.  The 
bills  of  these  birds  are  always  long  and  slender,  but  it  has 
been  observed  that  they  are  either  straight  or  curved,  ac- 
cording to  the  shape  of  the  flowers  they  frequent. 

18.  No  doubt  humming-birds   are   associated  in  your 
minds  with  the  flowers  about  which  they  flutter.     They 
visit  these  flowers  not  so  much  to  obtain  honey  as  to  capt- 
ure the  insects  which  have  been  attracted  by  the  sweet 
juices  found  there.     The  tongue,  however,  contains  two 
hollow  tubes,  and  it  is  divided  at  the   end,  thus  serving 
the  double  purpose  of  catching  insects  and  of  sucking  the 
honey  from  flowers.    This  remarkable  tongue,  like  that  of 
the  woodpecker,  is  attached  to  a  cartilage  extending  over 
the  skull,  so  that  it  can  be  thrust  out  beyond  the  beak. 

19.  The  humming   sound  which   you  have    noticed  in 
the  flight  of  these  little  birds,  and  from  which  they  take 
their  name,  is  produced  by  the  exceedingly  rapid  motion 
of  their  wings.      They  do  not  often  alight  when  taking 
their  food,  but  by  beating  the  air  they  are  able  to  hover 
before  the  flowers  long  enough  to  secure  their  feast ;  then 
they  dart  so  suddenly  from  one  blossom  to  another  that 
we  seldom  do  more  than  catch  a  glimpse  of  their  beauti- 
ful sparkling  colors. 

20.  Humming-birds  live  in  pairs,  and  the  male  defends 
his   little  family  with  much   spirit.     Indeed,  the   female 
herself  is  not  wanting  in  courage,  and  she  is  slow  to  aban- 
don her  nest  even  after  it  has  been  desecrated.     These 
birds  sometimes  return  to  the  same  tree  for  several  sea- 
sons in  succession,  and  the  young  birds  appear  to  stay 
with  their  parents  until  the  fall,  when  they  all  go  South 
together. 


PERCHING-BIRDS. 


313 


21.  The  Nest  of  the  Ruby -throat. — The  cup-shaped  nest 
of  our  common  humming-bird  (the  ruby-throat)  is  a  tiny 
one,  made  of  soft  down  taken  from  the  stems  of  ferns. 
It  is  then  covered  with  mosses  and  lichens,  so  closely  re- 
sembling the  branch  on  which  it  is  placed  that  there  is  not 
much  danger  of  discovery.  Even  the  keenest  eyes  might 


Fig.  213. — BROAD-TAILKD  HUMMING-BIRDS. 


314      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN    THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

mistake  it  for  an  old  knot  or  for  some  roughness  in  the 
bark;  and  but  few  persons  have  had  the  pleasure  of  find- 
ing a  humming-bird's  nest,  with  its  two  white  eggs  scarce- 
ly larger  than  a  pea.  When  these  nests  have  been  found, 
the  attention  of  the  discoverer  has  in  most  cases  first  been 
attracted  by  the  suspicious  behavior  of  the  birds,  they 
having  betrayed  their  own  secret  by  returning  so  fre- 
quently to  the  same  spot. 

22.  Some  of  our  Finest  Songsters. — Many  of  the  perch- 
ing-birds  are  gifted  with  fine  voices  as  well  as  with  beau- 
tiful plumage,  and  there  are  some  celebrated  songsters  be- 
longing to  this  large  group.     The  European  skylark  is  a 
great  favorite,  because  of  its  beautiful  song  and  of  the 
peculiar  manner  in  which  it  is  given.     Rising  almost  per- 
pendicularly from  the  ground,  the  skylark  sings  as  it  soars, 
mounting  higher  and  higher  into  the  air  until  it  is  lost  to 
sight,  although  its  clear  tones  may  still  be  heard.     The 
nightingale  is  another  European  bird  famous  for  its  melo- 
dious song.     It  usually  begins  its  long,  quivering  strains 
in  the  evening  and  continues  to  sing  through  the  night. 
Some  of  the  thrushes,  too,  are  very  musical.     The  mock- 
ing-bird is  one  of  these.     It  is  found  only  in  America,  and 
is  remarkable  for  its  power  of  imitating  the  notes  of  other 
birds.     Its  song  at  night,  however,  is  natural,  and  it  then 
pours  out  a  flood  of  enchanting  music. 

23.  Bobolinks  in  the  different  Characters  they  Assume.— 
Bobolinks  arrive  in  New  England  early  in  the  spring,  and 
for  a  few  weeks  they  sing  very  sweetly.     One  may  see 
them  perched  on  a  twig  or  spear  of  grass  in  the  meadow, 
uttering  the  while  a  succession  of  gay,  frolicking  notes  as 
they  tilt  up  and  down  on  their  slender  support.     Their 
nest  is  probably  hidden  at  the  root  of  some  tuft  of  grass 
not  very  far  away,  but  they  are  so  cautious  in  approach- 


315 


Fig.  214. — THE  NIGHTINGALE. 

ing  it  that  we  shall  scarcely  discover  its  position  from  the 
wise  little  owners. 

24.  At  this  season  the  male  is  dressed  in  a  mottled  coat 
of  black  and  white,  while  the  female  has  one  of  yellow- 
ish brown.  Later  in  summer  the  male  assumes  a  quiet 
garb  like  that  of  his  mate,  and  they  start  off  towards  the 
South  in  search  of  good  things  to  eat.  They  find  attract- 
ive feeding-grounds  among  the  reeds  and  marshes  of  the 
Delaware  River,  and  soon  grow  fat  upon  the  seeds  which 
abound  in  such  places.  They  are  now  called  reed-birds  in 


316      ANIMAL   LIFE    IN   THE   SEA    AND   ON   THE    LAND. 

Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey,  and,  being  considered  a 
great  delicacy,  they  are  shot  in  large  numbers  to  supply 
the  tables  of  the  luxurious. 

25.  Those  birds  which  escape  the  gun  of  the  sportsman 
next  visit  the  rice  swamps  of  Carolina,  where  they  feast 
greedily  upon  grains  of  rice,  and  pass  by  the  name  of  rice- 
birds. 

26.  The  character  of  the  bobolink  undergoes  a  complete 
change  during  this  time.     In  spring  the  bird  is  very  mu- 
sical ;  it  seems  to  know  that  it  has  arrived  among  friends, 
and  it  becomes  tame  and  familiar.     But  after  starting  on 
its  southern  journey  it  loses  its  refined  and  musical  tastes, 
grows  silent  and  shy,  and  gives  itself  up  to  the  pleasures 
of  appetite. 

27.  Thus  the  bobolink  in  its  extended  migrations,  which 
are  supposed  to  reach  from  Labrador  to  Patagonia,  plays 
the  part  of  three  birds,  differing  in  character  as  well  as  in 
appearance. 

28.  Swallows.  —  Swallows  are  excellent  fliers,  as  their 
long,  pointed  wings  and  forked  tails  are  both  favorable  to 
speed.     It  is  estimated  that  these  birds  fly  from  sixty  to 
ninety  miles  an  hour.     They  delight  in  places  where  in- 
sects abound,  and  here  they  may  be  seen  during  twilight 
flying  in  large  circles.     The  sticky  glue-like  saliva  of  the 
swallows  serves  them  a  good  purpose  in  nest-building,  and 
they  all  make  use  of  it  to  strengthen  their  nests  or  to 
fasten  them  securely  in  their  places. 

29.  Edible  Birds'-nests. — The  edible  birds'-nests,  so  pop- 
ular among  the  Chinese,  are  built  by  a  species  of  swallow. 
These  nests  are  made  of  a  certain  kind  of  sea-weed,  which, 
when  boiled,  yields  a  good  quality  of  glue.    The  birds  first 
swallow  the  sea-weed,  then  deposit  from  their  mouths  the 
material,  which  has  been  moistened  with  their  own  sticky 


PKROH  ING  BIRDS. 


317 


saliva,  in  layers  around  the  edge  of  the  nest,  and  the  whole 
structure  hardens  on  being  exposed  to  the  air.  So  the 
birds'-nests  are  in  reality  a  fine  gelatine.  These  nests  are 
glued  upon  rocky  cliffs  and  inside  of  deep  caverns  on  the 


Fig.  215.     EDIBLE  NESTS  OF  THE  SWALLOW. 

sea-shore,  and  from  these  places  it  is  extremely  difficult 
and  dangerous  to  gather  them. 

30.  Bank -swallows.  —  Not  the  least  interesting  of  the 
swallows  are  the  bank-swallows,  which,  when  seen  at  all, 
are  generally  congregated  in  large  flocks.  They  dig  holes 
for  their  nests  in  perpendicular  bluffs  of  fine  sand  near 


318       ANIMAL   LIFE    IN    THE   SEA   AND    ON    THE   LAND. 


Fig.  216. — HOME  OF  THE  BANK-SWALLOW. 

some  sheet  of  water.  These  holes  extend  into  the  bank 
for  two  or  three  feet,  and  at  the  farthest  extremity  is 
placed  a  loose  nest  of  hay,  jauntily  lined  with  a  few  soft 
goose  feathers  standing  upright.  One  hole  is  just  like  an- 
other, and  they  are  placed  so  close  together  in  the  bank 
that  we  might  suppose  it  would  puzzle  the  birds  to  find 
their  nests,  but  each  one  knows  its  own. 

31.  Whippoorwills.  —  Whippoorwills  are  rather  dismal 


PERCHING-BIRDS. 


319 


birds,  inhabiting  secluded  spots  in  the  deep  woods,  and 
keeping  out  of  sight  until  night  comes  on,  when  they  fly 
forth  in  search  of  insects.  It  is  at  this  time  only  that  we 
may  hear  their  mournful  cry  of  "  whip-poor-will,"  which 
is  sounded  so  dis- 
tinctly as  to  be  quite 
startling.  They  do 
not  build  a  nest,  but 
merely  scratch  a 
hole  in  the  earth 
near  a  rock  or  fallen 
tree  to  contain  their 
eggs. 

32.  Provision  for 
catching  Insects.  — 
Swallows  and  whip- 
poorwills  feed  upon 
insects,  and  no  bet- 
ter trap  could  be  de- 
vised for  catching 
the  tiny  prey  than 
is  formed  by  their 
large  mouths,  which 
are  moistened  by 

sticky  saliva,  and  are  also  furnished  with  bristles  hanging 
from  the  roof  of  the  mouth.  As  these  birds  fly  about 
with  their  mouths  wide  open,  the  insects  become  hope- 
lessly entangled  among  the  sticky  bristles,  and  are  thus 
prevented  from  escaping. 


217. — WHIPPOORWILLS. 


320      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


XLVI. 
BIRDS    OF   PREY    (EAPTOBES). 

SUB-KINGDOM,  VERTEBRATA :  CLASS,  AVES. 

1.  Hawks. — As  hawks  are  among  the  commonest  of  our 
birds  of  prey,  let  us  take  them  as  our  example,  and  no- 
tice how  admirably  the  strong,  curved  beak  and  the  sharp 


Fig.  218. — HAWK  AND  HUMMING-BIRDS. 

claws  (as  shown  in  Fig.  219)  are  suited  for  seizing  their 
victims  and  tearing  the  flesh  from  their  bones.      These 


BIRDS   OF    PREY. 


321 


birds  have  also  large,  strong  wings,  and  their  flight  is 
rapid  and  powerful. 

2.  Hawks  usually  fly  quite  low,  and  we  may  recognize 
them  at  a  distance  by  their 
habit  of  flapping  their  wings 
rapidly  for  a  while,  and  then 
soaring  without  apparent  effort 
for  an  equal  length  of  time. 

3.  The  Flight  of  the  Eagle.— 
The   movements   of  the   eagle 
are  particularly  easy  and  grace- 
ful.     Its  strong  wings  bear  it  onward  and  upward  to 
a  great  height  in  the  air,  and  it  forms  one  large  circle 
after  another,  as  if  delighted  with  its  own  performances. 


Fig.  219. — CLAW  AND  BKAK  OP 
BIKD  OF  PREY. 


Fig.  220.— THE  GOLDEN  EAGLE. 

4.  The  Golden  Eagle. — The  golden  eagle  may  be  seen 
circling  in  this  majestic  manner  about  the  lofty  peaks  of 
mountain  regions,  where  it  places  its  nest,  or  "  eyrie,"  on 
22 


322      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


Fig.  221. — EAGLE'S  NEST. 

the  highest  and  most  inaccessible  cliffs.  The  nest  is  a 
very  rude  one,  built  of  large  sticks  and  branches  roughly 
heaped  together;  still  it  becomes  the  family  residence, 
and  is  used  year  after  year,  seldom  being  abandoned  for 
a  new  nest.  Neither  do  the  parent  birds  desert  each  other 
when  their  young  ones  are  grown;  but  having  once  chosen 
their  mates,  they  continue  true  to  them  the  rest  of  their 


BIRDS   OF   PREY.  323 

lives.     With  eagles  as  with  other  birds  of  prey,  the  fe- 
male is  larger  than  the  male. 

5.  A  large  Supply  of  Food  required. — For  food  the  gold- 
en eagle  seizes  large  birds,  rabbits,  fawns,  and  sometimes 
sheep  and  lambs,  and  carries  them  off  bodily  to  its  se- 
cluded nest,  where  they  are  torn  in  pieces  and  devoured. 
In  this  way  a  pair  of  eagles  and  two  or  three  young  eaglets 
consume  a  large  amount  of  food;  and  as  the  bird  sails 
through  the  air,  its  keen  eye  is  directed  towards  the  earth 
in  search  of  fresh  supplies.     Small  animals,  either  living 
or  dead,  are  quickly  discovered,  and  the  great  bird  pounces 
upon  them  with  its  strong  claws. 

6.  Shocking  as  this  destruction  of  life  may  at  first  ap- 
pear, we  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  in  seeking 
such  food  as  birds  and  beasts  of  prey  do,  they  are  only 
following  the  instincts  of  their  nature,  which  requires  ani- 
mal food,  and  they  therefore  cannot  be  regarded  as  cruel 
in  their  habits. 

7.  The  Bald  Eagle.  —  The  white-headed  eagle  is  often 
called   the  bald  eagle,  because,  at  a  distance,  the  white 
feathers  on  its  head  have  somewhat  the  effect  of  baldness. 
This  eagle  is  fond  of  fish,  and  in  order  to  gratify  this 
fondness  it  frequents  the  sea-  coast,  and  builds  its  nest 
in  the  forks  of  a  large  dead  tree.     It  occupies  the  same 
nest  from  one  year  to  another,  making  fresh  additions  to 
it  each  season,  until  it  grows  to  be  a  huge  structure. 

8.  Encounters  with  the  Fish  -  hawk. — The  top  of  a  tall 
tree  upon  the  coast  affords  a  good  view  of  both  the  sea 
and  shore,  and  here  the  eagle  sits  and  watches  for  prey. 
Rather  than  do  its  own  fishing,  the  wrhite  -  headed  eagle 
prefers  to  attack  the  fish-hawk,  and  rob  it  of  fish  already 
caught  from  the  ocean.     In  the  encounters  between  these 
two  birds,  the  fish-hawk  often  drops  the  fish  it  is  carrying 


324      ANIMAL    LIFE    IN    THE    SEA    AND    ON   THE    LAND. 


Fig.  222. — THE  FISH-HAWK  AND  ITS  NEST. 

to  the  shore,  and  the  eagle  darts  after  the  falling  booty 
with  such  speed  as  to  catch  it  before  it  reaches  the  water. 


BIRDS   OF   PREY.  325 

9.  The  Vulture.  —  The   neck  of  the  vulture  is   mostly 
bare,  but  at  the  lower  part  there  is  a  loose  fold  of  skin 
which  is  covered  with  soft  feathers,  and  under  this  warm 
fold  the  neck  and  greater  part  of  the  head  can  be  drawn 
as  a  protection  from  the  cold.     Vultures  are  cowardly 
birds,  feeding  greedily  upon  carrion  until  they  become  al- 
most stupefied.     They  seldom  attack  living  animals,  but 
they  have  been  seen  to  sit  and  watch  those  that  were  sick 
or  enfeebled  until  life  was  gone  before  beginning  their 
feast.      Even  these  unattractive  birds  have  their  use  in 
nature,  for  they  remove  decaying  animal  matter,  the  odor 
of  which  they  can  discover  at  a  great  distance.     In  trop- 
ical climates  their  services  are  especially  valuable,  as  the 
dead  animals  thus  removed  would  otherwise  become  in- 
jurious to  health. 

10.  The  Condor. — The  throat  of  the  condor,  instead  of 
being  bare  like  that  of  the  vulture,  is  ornamented  with  a 
ruffle  of  showy  white  feathers.     This  huge  bird  is  found 
only  among  the  Andes  Mountains,  and  here  it  soars  in  un- 
interrupted circles  above  the  high  peaks.     Its  movements 
are  very  imposing,  and  it  is  said  to  soar  for  half  an  hour 
at  a  time  without  once  flapping  its  wings. 

11.  The  Owl. — What  a  wise-looking  bird  the  owl  is,  with 
its  large  round  eyes  gazing  directly  in  front  of  it !     The 
circle  of  feathers  which  surrounds  the  eyes  adds  still  fur- 
ther to  the  gravity  of  its  appearance,  while  its  loose  plu- 
mage, extending  all  the  way  down  to  the  tips  of  the  toes, 
is  extremely  soft  and  pretty.     There  is  a  great  advantage, 
too,  in   these   loose,  fluffy  feathers,  for  they  render  the 
owl's  flight  almost  noiseless,  and  consequently  these  dig- 
nified hunters  are  able  to  approach  the  cautious  mice  and 
timid  little  birds  in  the  darkness  without  being  heard. 
The  small  animals  upon  which  owls  feed  are  swallowed 


326      ANIMAL    LIFE   IN   THE   SEA    AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

whole,  and  the  indigestible  portions,  such  as  the  feathers, 
bones,  etc.,  are  afterwards  thrown  out  from  the  mouth  in 
the  form  of  small  round  balls. 

12.  The  Nocturnal  Habits  of  the  Owl.— Most  owls  hunt 
their  prey  only  at  night,  or  during  twilight,  at  which  time 


Fig.  223.— THE  OWL. 

they  seem  to  have  no  difficulty  in  seeing  their  victims. 
Their  nests  are  generally  placed  in  the  hollow  of  an  old 
tree,  and  in  this  snug  retreat  they  spend  the  daytime, 
venturing  out  only  under  cover  of  the  darkness,  and  oc- 
casionally breaking  the  stillness  of  the  night  with  their 
doleful  notes. 


THE   ORN1TI1OKHYNCHUS. 


327 


XLVIL 
THE  ORNITHORIIYNCHUS. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  VERTEBRATA:   CLASS,  MAMMALIA. 

1.  The  Ornithorhynchus. — Let  us  now  leave  the  subject 
of  birds  and  visit  in  fancy  the  island  of  Australia,  which 
is  the  home  of  many  singular  animals  as  well  as  plants. 
Here  we  shall  find  the  streams  and  pools  frequented  by 


Fig.  224. — OllNITHORHYNCHl'S. 

a  small  animal  called  the  ornithorhynchus,  or  duck-bill, 
which  is  found  nowhere  but  in  Australia  and  the  neigh- 
boring island,  of  Tasmania. 
2.  Resemblance  to  both  Birds  and  Quadrupeds.— The  or- 


328      ANIMAL    LIFE    IN   THE   SEA   AND    ON   THE    LAND. 

nithorhynchus  bears  a  curious  resemblance  to  both  birds 
and  quadrupeds,  and  has,  on  this  account,  attracted  much 
attention.  The  body  is  like  that  of  an  otter,  covered 
with  short,  brown  fur,  while  the  head  is  supplied  with 
a  large,  flat  beak,  much  the  same  in  shape  as  a  duck's 
beak.  Altogether  this  animal  is  so  peculiar  that  the  first 
descriptions  of  it  were  scarcely  believed  to  be  true,  and 
when  a  stuffed  specimen  was  taken  to  England,  persons 
suspected  that  a  joke  had  been  practised  upon  them,  and 
that  the  bill  of  some  Australian  bird  had  mischievously 
been  fastened  to  the  head  of  a  quadruped. 

3.  The  Habits. — When  swimming,  the  ornithorhynchus 
shows  only  its  head  above  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  it 
obtains  its  food  of  worms  and  insects  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  duck,  by  thrusting  its  bill  into  the  mud.     It  is  a 
timid  creature,  preferring  twilight  to  the  glare   of  day, 
and  taking  fright  very  easily  if  any  attempt  is  made  to 
capture  it.     It  dresses  and  pecks  its  fur  with  great  care, 
and  when  asleep  it  rolls  itself  up  so   snugly  that   one 
might  almost  mistake  it  for  a  ball.     . 

4.  The  broad  tail  and  short  legs  are  no  doubt  helpful 
in  swimming,  and  the  web  which  unites  the  toes  tells  its 
own  story  so  plainly  as  to  need  no  interpreter. 

5.  But  the  ornithorhynchus  is  a  burrowing  animal  as 
well  as  a  swimmer,  and  although  this  web  extends  beyond 
the  claws  on  the  forefeet,  yet  it  does  not  interfere  with 
digging  in  the  earth,  because  when  any  burrowing  is  to 
be  done  the  web  can  be  folded  back  out  of  the  way. 

6.  The  Underground  Nest. — The  nest  of  this  curious  ani- 
mal is  under  ground  near  a  stream  of  water,  and  there 
are  two  passages  by  which  it  may  be  entered  ;  the  open- 
ing of  one  passage  is  under  water,  while  the  other  open- 
ing is  in  the  bank  above  the  surface  of  the  stream.     Tb^s 


THE   ORNITHORHYNCHUS. 


329 


nest  is  lined  with  grass  and  weeds,  and  here,  at  the  end 
of  the  burrow,  which  is  sometimes  forty  feet  in  length, 
the  tiny  young  animals  are  raised. 

7.  The  Ornithorhynchus  is  a  Mammal. — The  ornithorhyn- 
chus  must  serve  as  our  first  example  of  the  great  group  of 
Mammals  simply  because  it  is  lowest  in  the  scale,  and  not 
because  it  is  a  good  illustration.  In  fact,  it  is  a  poor  rep- 
resentative of  the  class,  and  you  will  see  that  it  presents 
some  strange  contradictions.  It  has  a  furry  coat,  to  be 
sure,  as  we  have  already  noticed,  and  this  is  one  great 
peculiarity  of  Mammals — that  they  are  all  more  or  less 
covered  with  hair  at  some  time  in  their  lives. 


Fig.  225.—  BURROW  OF  ORNITHORHYNCHUS. 


330      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

8.  The  Young  Ornithorhynchus  begins  Life  differently 
from  most  Mammals. — Another  important  peculiarity  of 
Mammals  is  that  their  young  are  born  alive,  and  are  nour- 


is 
t 


Fig.  226. — ORNITHORHYNCHUS  AND  PORCUPINE  ANT-EATER. 

ished  for  a  time  by  the  mother  with  milk  secreted  in  the 
mammary  glands.  We  should,  therefore,  naturally  expect 
the  young  ornithorhynchus  to  begin  life  as  other  Mam- 
mals do;  but  the  truth  of  the  matter  is,  these  odd  ani- 
mals lay  eggs  after  the  manner  of  birds  and  reptiles,  and 
thus  confuse  our  attempts  at  classification.  Two  eggs 
are  laid  at  a  time  in  the  nest,  and  when  first  hatched  these 
little  creatures  with  very  long  names  are  quite  blind  and 
helpless. 

9.  Characteristics  of  Mammals.— We  have  just  learned 
that  all  Mammals  have  a  covering  of  hair  at  some  period 
of  their  existence,  and  that  their  young  are  born  alive, 


T1IK   ORN1THORHYNCHUS. 


331 


except  in  the  case  of  the  ornithorhynchus  and  the  porcu- 
pine ant-eater,  both  of  which  lay  eggs,  and  both  belong 
to  Australia.  Following  the  description  of  Mammals  still 
further,  we  may  state  here  some  facts  with  regard  to 
structure  which  apply  to  all  members  of  the  group,  and 
which  will  not,  therefore,  need  to  be  repeated  hereafter. 


227. — HEADS  AND  FEET  OF  DUCK,  ORNITHORHYNCHUS,  AND  PORCUPINE 
ACT-CATER. 


The  thorax  and  abdomen  of  all  Mammals  are  separated 
from  each  other  by  a  muscular  partition  called  the  dia- 
phragm. The  thorax  contains  the  heart  and  lungs  within 
its  walls,  while  the  abdomen  contains  the  greater  part  of 
the  alimentary  canal,  the  liver,  the  kidneys,  and  other  or- 
gans. There  is  a  perfect  double  circulation,  the  same  as 


332      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN    THE    SEA    AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

in  birds,  and  the  senses  are  highly  developed.  Most  ani- 
mals belonging  to  this  class  have  an  external  ear  for  col- 
lecting the  vibrations  of  sound,  and  the  eyes  are  protected 
by  two  lids  which  are  fringed  with  eyelashes. 

10.  The  usual  number  of  toes  (or  of  fingers,  as  the  case 
may  be)  possessed  by  Mammals  is  five,  but  we  find  the 
number  sometimes  varying  from  one  single  toe  to  a  full 
set  of  five,  each  one  of  which  is  furnished  with  a  nail,  a 
claw,  or  a  hoof. 

11.  The  Teeth  of  Mammals. — Most  Mammals  are  supplied 
with  teeth,  which  grow  from  separate  sockets  and  form 
but  a  single  row  in  each  jaw.     These  teeth  differ  from 
ordinary  bone  in  being  denser  and  containing  less  animal 
matter;  they  are  also  covered  with  a  hard  substance  called 
enamel,  which  helps  to  preserve  them  from  decay.     Teeth 
differ  so  much  in  size  and  shape  that  tliey  have  received 
different  names  according  to  their  position  in  the  mouth, 
and  they  are  generally  spoken  of  as  incisors,  canines,  and 
molars.      The   sharp -edged  front  teeth,  used  in   cutting 
food,  are  the  incisors.     The  pointed  "eye-teeth,"  which 
are  fitted  for  seizing  and   tearing   prey,  and   which  are 
conspicuous  in  all  carnivorous  animals,  are  called  canines. 
The  molars  are  the  grinding  teeth,  and  their  shape  varies 
in  accordance  with  the  habits  of  the  animal. 

12.  The  Growth  of  the  Hair.  —  It  is  also  interesting  to 
know  that  hair,  which  is  so  characteristic  of  Mammals, 
grows  from  small  sacs  in  the  skin  much  in  the  same  way 
as  feathers,  except  that  it  does  not  split  up  in  the  process 
of  development.     This  difference  in  the  manner  of  growth 
seems  but  slight,  yet  it  produces  very  different  results. 
and  the  many  kinds  of  fur  and  wool  with  which  Mammals 
are  clothed  bear  little   resemblance   to   the   plumage   of 
birds. 


KANGAROOS   AND   OPOSSUMS.  333 


XLVII1. 

KANGAROOS  AND  OPOSSUMS. 

8UB -KINGDOM,  VERTEBRATA  :    CLASS,    MAMMALIA. 

1.  Kangaroos  found  only  in  Australia. — Kangaroos  like- 
wise belong  to  Australia,  and,  as  is  the  case  with  the  or- 
nithorhynchus,  they  are  never  found  in  any  other  part  of 
the   world.      Upon    this    island,  however,  they   are   very 
abundant.     Forty  species  of  kangaroos  are  known  to  ex- 
ist here,  and  these  species  differ  greatly  in  habit,  some 
being  fitted  to  live  on  the  desert,  while  some  delight  in 
climbing  trees  in  the  forest,  and  others  take  naturally  to 
the  rocks  and  plains.     An  equal  diversity  may  be  noticed 
with  regard  to  their  size,  which  varies  from  the  height  of 
a  rabbit  to  that  of  a  large  sheep. 

2.  The  Great  Kangaroo.  —  From  these  different  species 
we  shall  select  as  our  subject  the  great  kangaroo,  which  is 
represented  in  the  picture  (Fig.  228),  and  which  lives  in 
large  herds  on  grassy  plains.    The  front  parts  of  the  body 
are  strangely  out  of  proportion  to  the  back,  and  the  short 
forelegs  and  the   delicately  formed  head,  with  its  mild 
countenance  and  soft  eyes,  look  quite  unsuited  to  an  ani- 
mal having  such  stout  hind  limbs. 

3.  The  Movements  of  the  Kangaroo.— The  habitual  gait 
of  the  kangaroo  is  a  succession  of  long  leaps,  which  bring 
into  play  the  muscles  of  the  strong  hind  limbs,  and  which 
have,  in  fact,  tended  to  produce  their  extraordinary  devel- 


334      ANIMAL    LIFE    IN   THE   SEA    AND   ON   THE    LAND. 


Fig.  228. — THE  HOME  OP  THE  KANGAROO. 

opment.  In  this  violent  exercise  the  powerful  tail  has  its 
part  to  perform  also,  and  by  its  assistance  the  kangaroo  is 
able  to  make  enormous  leaps  in  rapid  succession.  When 
the  animal  is  feeding  upon  the  grass  by  the  way,  it  walks 
on  all  four  legs,  and  its  motion  is  then  slow  and  un- 
graceful. 

4.  The  Pouch  of  the  Kangaroo.— But  the  distinctive  feat- 
ure of  the  kangaroo,  and  the  one  which  especially  inter- 
ests naturalists,  is  a  curious  pouch  which  the  females  have 
for  carrying  their  young  ones. 


KANGAROOS   AND   OPOSSUMS. 


335 


5.  The  Helpless  Young.  —  At  the  time  of  their  birth 
young  kangaroos  are  extremely  weak  and  helpless,  and 
the  mother  soon  lifts  her  tiny  babies  into  the  pouch  which 


Fig.  229.— KANGAROOS. 

is  formed  by  a  fold  of  the  skin 
of  her  abdomen.  Within  this 
pouch  are  situated  the  teats, 
and  although  the  little  creat- 
ures are  too  feeble  to  obtain 

their  nourishment  by  sucking,  they  take  hold  of  one  of 
the  teats  and  remain  attached  to  it  night  and  day,  while 
the  mother  now  and  then  feeds  them  by  forcing  the  milk 
from  her  own  body  into  their  mouths. 


336      ANIMAL    LIFE   IN   THE   SEA    AND   ON   THE    LAND. 

6.  The  tender  young  animals  are  carried  in  this  warm 
cradle  until  they  are  strong  enough  to  depend  upon  them- 
selves. As  they  grow  larger,  they  occasionally  stick  their 
little  heads  out  of  the  pouch  to  look  around  them,  and  to 
nibble  at  the  grass  within  reach.  Later  on  they  jump  out 
of  the  pouch,  and  scramble  back  again  as  they  please,  al- 
ways taking  refuge  there  upon  the  slightest  alarm. 

1.  Marsupials.  —  Animals  possessing  these  remarkable 
pouches  are  called  marsupials.  With  the  single  excep- 
tion of  the  opossum  of  America,  marsupials  are  confined 
exclusively  to  Australia  and  the  islands  near  it.  And  it 
is  a  curious  fact  that  nearly  all  the  Mammals  found  here 
belong  to  this  interesting  order  of  marsupials. 

8.  The  Virginia  Opossum.  —  The  Virginia    opossum  is 
about  the  size  of  a  large  cat.     The  inner  toe  of  the  hind 
foot  can  be  folded  against  the  other  toes,  somewhat  like  a 
thumb,  and  this  arrangement,  together  with  the  prehensile 
tail,  makes  the  opossum  an  expert  climber.    It  lives  among 
the  thick  forests,  and  is  sometimes  seen  hanging  from  the 
boughs  by  its  tail,  or  swinging  from  one  tree  to  another 
by  catching  hold  of  the  neighboring  branches. 

9.  The  opossum  sleeps  through  the  daytime  in  its  bur- 
row, and  starts  out  at  night  to  play  and  to   search  for 
food,  which   consists  of   fruits,  small    quadrupeds,  birds, 
eggs,  etc.     It  is  a  cunning  robber  of  poultry-yards,  and, 
being  exceedingly  wary  and  cautious  in  all  its  movements, 
it  is  not  easily  caught  in  its  depredations.    When  the  opos- 
sum is  attacked,  its  first  impulse  is  to  escape  by  climbing 
into  a  tree  ;  but  failing  in  this,  it  rolls  itself  up  in  the 
shape  of  a  ball  and  pretends  to  be  dead,  acting  its  part  so 
well  as  often  to  deceive  even  the  dogs.     The  expression 
"  playing  'possum  "  has  no  doubt  originated  from  this  fa- 
vorite trick. 


KANGAROOS  AND  OPOSSUMS. 


337 


10.  The  Young  Opossums. — Young  opossums  are  said  to 
weigh  only  about  a  grain  at  the  time  of  their  birth,  and 
to  show  but  little  indication  of  the  shape  to  which  they 
grow  afterwards.  When  they  are  old  enough  to  leave 


Fig.  230. — VIRGINIA  OPOSSUM. 

the  pouch,  they  sometimes  curl  their  slender  tails  around 
the  strong  tail  of  their  mother,  and,  huddled  together  upon 
her  back,  they  cling  to  her  in  this  odd  fashion  as  she  moves 
about  among  the  branches  of  the  trees. 


23 


338      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 


XLIX. 

SLOTHS,  ARMADILLOS,  AND   GREAT  ANT- 
EATERS. 

SUB- KINGDOM,  VERTEBRATA  :    CLASS,  MAMMALIA. 

1.  South  America  the  Home  of  the  Edentata.— Australia, 
as  we*  have  seen,  has  its  ornithorhynchus  and  its  kanga- 
roos, and  New  Zealand  its  wingless  birds.  Another  ex- 


Fig.  231. — SLOTH. 

ample  of  this  partial  distribution  of  animals  is  found  in 
South  America,  which  is  exclusively  the  home  of  the 
sloths,  armadillos,  and  great  ant-eaters.  All  of  these 


SLOTHS,  ARMADILLOS,  AND   GREAT   ANT-EATERS.      339 

sluggish  animals  belong  to  the  order  Edentata,  so  called 
from  the  fact  of  their  having  no  true  teeth. 

2.  The  Peculiar  Habits  of  the  Sloths.  —  The  strangest 
thing  about  the  sloths  is  that  they  pass  their  whole  life 
hanging  from  the  branches  of  trees  with  their  backs 
downward,  as  seen  in  the  picture  (Fig.  231).  The  struct- 
ure of  the  body  is  especially  fitted  for  this  peculiar  posi- 


r^v^iV 


Fig.  232. — ARMADILLO. 

tion,  and  scarcely  admits  of  any  other;  so  they  hang  there 
day  and  night,  even  when  asleep,  trusting  to  the  grasp  of 
their  strong,  curved  claws. 

3.  They  feed  upon  the  leaves  and  young  shoots  of  trees, 
and  rarely  descend  to  the  ground  if  they  can  avoid  doing 
so.  In  a  dense  forest  they  can  readily  swing  from  the 
branches  of  one  tree  to  another  in  order  to  find  a  fresh 
supply  of  food;  and  in  thus  changing  their  abode  they  of- 
ten take  advantage  of  a  time  when  the  boughs  are  swayed 
to  and  fro  by  the  wind.  But  so  great  is  their  aversion  to 
coming  to  the  ground,  that  when  the  trees  are  standing 


340      ANIMAL    LIFE    IN   THE   SEA    AND   ON   THE    LAND. 


too  far  apart  to  be  reached  in  this  ingenious  manner,  the 
sloths  will  devour  every  particle  of  foliage  on   the  tree 

upon  which  they 
are  hanging  be- 
fore they  leave  it 
to  climb  into  an- 
other. 

4.  Their  Feet  not 
fitted  for  Walk- 
ing.— These  sin- 
gular animals  are 
clothed  with  dull, 
thick  hair,  much 
the  color  of  the 
bark  and  moss ; 
so  they  are  quite 
inconspicuous 
among  the  leafy 
branches,  and  are 
safer  in  this  re- 
treat than  on  the 
ground.  Here 
they  have  great 
difficulty  in  walk- 
ing, as  their  curved  feet  and  long  claws  prevent  their 
treading  fairly  on  the  bottom  of  the  foot.  They  are  there- 
fore obliged  to  step  on  the  side  of  the  foot,  and  the  sole  is 
turned  towards  the  body.  Owing  partly  to  this  defect, 
and  partly  to  the  fact  that  their  fore  limbs  are  much 
longer  than  the  hind  ones,  their  gait  is  extremely  slow  and 
laborious.  Seen  under  these  circumstances,  the  sloths  ap- 
pear to  deserve  the  name  they  have  received;  but  when 
really  at  home  in  the  tree-tops  of  their  native  forests,  they 


SLOTHS,  ARMADILLOS,  AKD  GREAT  ANT-EATERS.    341 


climb  among  the  branches  with  great  ease,  and  their  move- 
ments are  not  then  particularly  slothful. 

5.  The  Armadillo  lives  in  a  Coat  of  Mail. — Armadillos, 
on  the  other  hand,  are  burrowing  animals,  and  their  strong 
claws  are  used  for  digging.     But  they  are  chiefly  remark- 
able for  their  thick  coat  of  mail,  which  consists  of  hard, 
bony  plates  united  at  their  edges.     One  of  these  plates 
covers  the  head, 

another  th  e 
shoulders,  and  a 
third  protects  the 
hinder  parts  of 
the  body,  while 
between  these  last 
two  shields  sever- 
al movable  plates 
of  the  same  bony 
material  extend 
like  bands  around 
the  body,  and  al- 
low it  to  bend 
freely. 

6.  How  Arma- 
dillos    protect 
Themselves.— 
When  these  ani- 
mals are  attacked 
they  burrow  rap- 
idly    into     the 

earth.  Some  species  roll  up  into  a  ball,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
234,  thus  securely  protecting  themselves.  At  such  times 
the  head  and  tail  are  drawn  closely  together  and  tucked 
snugly  into  a  little  crevice,  where  the  two  extremities  of 


Fig.  234. — ARMADILLOS  ROLLED  FOR  PROTECTION. 


342      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 

the  shell  meet,  and  the  result  is  a  hard,  solid  ball,  which 
may  be  rolled  over  and  trampled  upon  without  injury. 

7.  The  Great  Ant-eater. — Still  another  phase  of  life  is 
shown  by  the  great  ant-eater,  an  animal  four  or  five  feet 


*JPP    - 

Fig.  235. — GREAT  ANT-KATKK. 


in  length,  with  a  large  bushy  tail,  which  is  sometimes 
thrown  over  its  body  as  a  shade  from  the  sun.  Its  long 
jaws  are  covered  with  skin,  except  at  the  end,  where  there 
is  an  opening  through  which  the  worm  -  like  tongue  is 
thrown  out.  The  ant-eater  as  well  as  the  sloth  has  curved 
claws,  and  it  also  walks  upon  the  side  of  its  foot. 

8.  This  curious  animal  feeds  almost  entirely  upon  white 
ants.  It  tears  open  their  nests  with  its  strong  claws,  and 
as  the  inmates  rush  forth  in  alarm,  it  thrusts  out  its  long, 
sticky  tongue  into  their  midst  and  then  swallows  the  mul- 
titude of  ants  adhering  to  it.  This  operation  is  repeated 


SLOTHS,  ARMADILLOS,  AND    GREAT   ANT-EATERS.       343 

again  and  again  with  surprising  rapidity,  and  large  quan- 
tities of  ants  are  thus  devoured. 

9.  Fossil  Remains  of  the  same  Type  found  in  South  Amer- 
ica.— Not  only  is  this  order  of  toothless  animals  peculiar 
to  South  America  in  the  present  day,  but  here  are  found, 
likewise,  most  of  the  fossil  remains  of  extinct  animals  of 
this  type.  Some  of  these  fossils  are  interesting  from  their 
great  size.  The  megatherium,  for  instance,  was  an  im- 
mense sloth  -  like  animal,  eighteen  feet  in  length  with, 
bones  as  massive  as  those  of  an  elephant,  and  the  glypto- 
don  resembled  a  large  armadillo,  except  that  it  had  no 
transverse  bands  in  its  shield.  The  body  was  covered 


Fig.  236. — MEGATHERIUM. 

with  one  large  plate  of  bone  shaped  like  a  turtle's  shell, 
and  the  glyptodon  must,  consequently,  have  been  unable 
to  roll  itself  up  as  the  armadillos  of  our  own  time  do. 


344:      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


L. 
WHALES. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  VERTEBRATA  :   CLASS,  MAMMALIA. 

1.  Whales.  —  The  largest   animals  now  living  are  the 
whales,  huge  inhabitants  of  the  ocean,  which  sometimes 
reach   the  length  of  seventy  or  eighty  feet,  and  whose 
heads  constitute  nearly  one-third  of  this  enormous  length. 

2.  Whales  are  fish-like  in  form,  with  strong,  flat  tails, 
set  horizontally  in  such  a  way  as  to  strike  the  water  with 
great  force,  and  thus  enable  the  animal  to  come  easily  to 
the  surface,  or  to  plunge  as  rapidly  into  the  depths  below. 
Their  fore  limbs  are  incased  with  a  tough  skin,  and  serve 
merely  as  swimming-paddles,  while,  to  all  outward  appear- 
ances, they  are  entirely  destitute  of  hind  limbs.     Under 
the  skin,  however,  and  imbedded  in  the  flesh,  there  is  a 
set  of  bones  which  are  the  rudiments  of  hind  limbs. 

3.  The  Spouting  of  Whales.  —  Although  whales  lead  an 
aquatic  life,  and  are  formed,  as  we  have  seen,  for  swim- 
ming, still,  they  are  true  air-breathing  Mammals,  and  they 
are  obliged  to   come  to  the  surface   once  in  a  while   to 
fill  their  lungs  with  a  fresh  supply  of  air.     It  is  at  these 
times. that  the  curious  " spouting"  or  "blowing"  occurs; 
but  the  representations  of  this  interesting  performance  have 
been  greatly  exaggerated,  and  instead  of  spouting  large 
streams  of  water,  as  we  have  been  led  to  suppose,  they 
merely  send  up  a  delicate  fountain  of  spray  from  the  nos- 


WHALES. 


345 


Fig.  237.— WHALE,  WITH 


YOUNG  CALF. 


trils,  or  "  blow-boles,"  wbicb  are  situated  on  top  of  the 
bead,  and  vvhicb  are  provided  witb  valves  to  keep  out  the 
water. 

4.  Upon  rising  to  the  surface  of  the  ocean,  whales  begin 
to  drive  the  air  from  their  lungs  before  they  reach /the 


346      ANIMAL    LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 

top,  and  the  water  which  is  above  the  head  is  forced  up- 
ward by  the  violent  expiration.  In  addition  to  the  dis- 
play which  is  thus  produced,  the  watery  vapor  from  the 
lungs  is  suddenly  condensed  on  coming  into  the  cold  at- 
mosphere, and  these  two  causes  combine  to  form  the  pleas- 
ing and  ever  -  welcome  spectacle  of  a  fountain  at  sea. 
This  spouting  is  accompanied  by  an  explosive  sound, 
somewhat  like  that  of  a  large  wave  breaking  upon  the 
shore,  and  as  it  is  necessarily  repeated  at  certain  intervals, 
the  whale  is  unable  to  conceal  its  whereabouts  even  when 
closely  pursued. 

5.  Whales  strongly  attached  to  their  Young.— It  is  be- 
lieved that  whales  live  to  a  great  age;  but  as  it  is  not 
possible  to  obtain  any  facts  upon  the  subject,  this  point, 
as  well  as  many  others  connected  with  their  life  in  the 
boundless  ocean,  must  remain  in  doubt.     They  are  said, 
however,  to  select  mates,  and  to  be  strongly  attached  to 
them  and  to  their  young,  and  whalers  tell   us  that  the 
mother   often    swims    or   floats    upon    the    rolling  waves 
holding  one  flipper  tenderly  over  the  back  of  her  calf. 

6.  The  Greenland  Whale  valuable  for  its  Oil.— The  Green- 
land whale,  which  lives  in  the  Arctic  seas,  is  the  one  sought 
by  whalers  for  its  oil;  hence  it  has  received  the  name  of 
"  right  whale."     The  blubber,  from  which  the  oil  is  ob- 
tained, is  a  layer  of  fat  connected  with  the  skin,  and  cov- 
ering the  animal,  in  some  instances,  to  the  depth  of  two 
feet.     This  thick  layer  of  blubber  serves  a  double  pur- 
pose, and  gives  buoyancy  to   the  massive  body  of  the 
whales  at  the  same  time  that  it  protects  them  from  the 
extreme  cold  of  the  icy  waters. 

7.  Whalebone.  —  The   whalebone  of  commerce   is   also 
taken  from  the  right  whale.     This  valuable  article  grows 
in  broad  plates  (Fig.  239)  which  hang  from  the  roof  of  the 


WHALES. 


347 


Fig.  2o8. — GRKENLAND  WHALE. 

mouth,  and  there  are  sometimes  as  many  as  three  hundred 
of  these  whalebone  plates  suspended  side  by  side.  The 
outer  edge  of  the  plates  is  smooth  and  unbroken,  but  the 
inner  edge,  towards  the  middle  of  the  mouth,  is  fringed 
with  frayed-out  whalebone  fibres,  so  that  the  roof  of  the 
mouth  has  the  appearance  of  being  covered  with  coarse 


348      ANIMAL    LIFE   IN  THE   SEA   AND   ON  THE   LAND, 


\ 


hairs.  The  brush  -  like  ends  of  the  plates  extend  below 
the  under  jaw  when  the  mouth  is  opened,  and  make  an 
excellent  strainer  for  collecting  food. 

8.  The  Food  of  the  Whale.— The  right  whale  has  no  teeth, 
and  the  opening  of  its  throat  is  too  small  to   admit  of 

swallowing  even  a  herring  of 
ordinary  size.  Its  food,  there- 
fore, consists  of  jelly-fishes, 
ctenophora,  mollusks,  and 
other  small  animals  which  live 
together  in  great  shoals  in 
the  Arctic  seas.  While  feed- 
ing, the  whale  swims  through 
these  shoals  with  its  mouth 
standing  wide  open ;  a  stream 
of  water  constantly  passes 
into  the  mouth  and  flows  out 
at  the  sides,  bringing  with  it 
the  tiny  animals  and  leaving 
them  entrapped  in  the  whale- 
bone fringes.  When  they 
have  been  collected  thus  in 
sufficient  quantities,  they  are 
swallowed  from  time  to  time, 
and  you  may  imagine  it  takes 
a  large  number  of  such  jelly- 
like  creatures  to  satisfy  the 
appetite  of  these  monsters. 

9.  The  right  whale  is  mostly  found  alone  or  in  pairs, 
unless  it  be  when  larger  numbers  are  attracted  to  good 
feeding-grounds. 

10.  The  Rorqual. — The  rorqual  differs  from  the  right 
whale  in  having  its  skin  ridged  with  deep  furrows.     It  is 


Fig.  289. — WHALEBONE. 


WHALES. 


349 


generally  this  whale  which  is  caught  on  our  shores,  as  it 
ventures  farther  south  than  the  right  whale. 

11.  Sperm-whales. — Sperm-whales  frequent  the  tropical 
seas,  and  here  they  live  in  great  schools.  They  may  be 
recognized  by  their  large,  square  heads,  which  have  a  sin- 
gle blow-hole  near  the  extremity  of  the  snout.  They  have 
none  of  the  curious  whalebone  plates  we  have  just  been 
studying  about,  but  the  narrow  lower  jaw  is  furnished 
with  large,  conical  teeth,  slightly  curved,  and  when  the 
mouth  is  closed,  the  teeth  fit  into  cavities  in  the  upper 
jaw. 


Fig.  240. — SPKKM-VVHALE. 

12.  Spermaceti.— These  whales  are  captured  for  the  pur- 
pose of  obtaining  spermaceti,  which  is  a  fatty  substance 
in  a  semi-fluid  state,  but  which,  on  being  taken  from  the 
animal,  hardens  as  it  cools.  The  large  head  is  partly  oc- 
cupied by  a  cavity  containing  spermaceti,  and  other  cavi- 
ties throughout  the  body  are  also  filled  with  it. 


350      ANIMAL   LIFE    IN   THE   SEA  AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

13.  Ambergris. — Ambergris  is  another  valuable  product 
of  the  sperm-whale.  This  waxy  substance  has  an  agree- 
able odor,  and  it  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  perfumery. 


Fig.  241. — DOLPHINS. 

It  is  found  in  large  quantities  in  the  intestines  of  the 
whale,  but  at  times  floating  masses  of  this  peculiar  sub- 
stance are  washed  on  shore,  and  it  is  then  easily  gathered 
for  sale.  An  interesting  point  with  regard  to  ambergris 
is  that  it  is  thought  to  result  from  slight  injuries  to  the 
intestines  received  from  the  "  parrots'  beaks,"  which  you 
will  remember  as  being  characteristic  of  the  cuttle-fish 
family.  Cuttle-fishes  form  the  principal  food  of  the  sperm- 
whale,  and  when  these  parrots'  beaks  are  swallowed  they 
are  supposed  to  produce  in  the  alimentary  canal  an  irrita- 
tion which  .causes  the  formation  of  ambergris. 


WHALES.  351 

14.  Dolphins  and  Porpoises. — The  dolphins  and  porpoises, 
so  common  in  all  seas,  are  much  smaller  than  the  true 
whales,  and  their  playful  capers  are  highly  entertaining. 
They  will  follow  a  vessel  in  large  companies,  often  leap- 
ing out  of  the  water,  and  frolicking  and  tumbling  about 
under  her  very  bows.      When   chasing   their  prey  they 
sometimes  pursue  schools  of  small  fishes  with  such  eager- 
ness as  to  follow  them  into  our  bays  and  for  some  dis- 
tance up  the  rivers.     The  dolphin  is  more  elegant  in  form 
than  the  porpoise,  and  may  be  known  by  its  long  snout. 

15.  The  Narwhal  remarkable  for  its  Tusk.  —  Another 
whale  requiring  our  attention  is  the  narwhal,  or  sea-uni- 


Fig.  242. — THE  NARWHAL. 

corn,  which  is  remarkable  for  its  one  great  tusk.  This 
strong  weapon  is  possessed  only  by  the  males,  and  it  is 
in  reality  the  left  upper  incisor,  grown  to  a  prodigious 
length.  It  projects  from  the  upper  jaw,  straight  forward 


352      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA    AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

in  the  line  of  the  body,  and  it  keeps  on  growing  through- 
out the  whole  life  of  the  animal,  until  it  sometimes  meas- 
ures eight  or  ten  feet — a  goodly-sized  tooth,  which  is  spi- 
rally twisted,  and  tapers  to  a  point.  Its  companion,  the 
right  incisor,  is  only  a  rudimentary  tooth,  and  does  not 
often  grow  into  view.  The  ivory  of  the  narwhal's  tusk 
is  very  valuable,  as  it  takes  a  fine  polish,  and  retains  its 
beautiful  whiteness  for  a  long  time. 


HORSES. 


353 


LI. 
HORSES. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  VERTEBRATA:   CLASS,  MAMMALIA. 

1.  Horses  known  chiefly  as  Domestic  Animals. — Horses 
have  so  long  been  associated  with  man,  and  employed  so 
exclusively  in  his  service,  that  we  scarcely  realize  there 


Fig.  243.— HOKSKS. 


was  once  a  time  when  these  noble  animals  were  free  and 
unrestrained.  There  are  some  wild  horses  at  the  pres- 
ent day,  it  is  true,  yet  it  is  believed  that  all  of  these  have 


24 


354      ANIMAL    LIFE   IN"  THE   SEA    AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

descended  from  tame  horses  which  escaped  from  their 
masters. 

2.  Horses  brought  to  America  by  the  Spaniards.  —  The 
history  of  the  horse  on  our  own  continent,  so  far  as  it  is 
known,  is  exceedingly  interesting.     It  shows  that  at  the 
time  of  the  discovery  of  America  there  were  no  horses 
here,  and  that  they  were  afterwards  brought  into  the  coun- 
try by  the  Spaniards  during  the  Mexican  wars. 

3.  According  to  the  accounts  of  this  conquest,  the  na- 
tives of  Mexico  were  greatly  astonished  to  behold  the  in- 
vaders upon  horseback.     Not  only  was  the  beautiful  ani- 
mal itself  wholly  unknown  to  them,  but  their  surprise  was 
further  increased  by  the  remarkable  sight  of  a  man  seated 
upon  its  back. 

4.  Proofs  of  their  Former  Existence  in  America.  —  Not- 
withstanding the  fact  that  horses  were  then  unknown  in 
America,  still  the  fossil  remains  which  have  been  found 
in  the  western  part  of  the  United  States  prove  that  horses 
existed  in  the  New  World  in  very  early  times.    Therefore, 
for  some  good  reason  which  is  not  understood,  they  must 
have  died  out  upon  this  continent  before  the  arrival  of 
the  Europeans  upon  our  shores. 

5.  Descent  from  a  Small  Horse  with  Four  Toes. — These 
interesting  fossils  likewise  show  us  that  the  horses  of  that 
far-off  time  were  curious  little  animals,  very  different  from 
the  graceful,  elegant  horses  of  our  own  day.     The  earli- 
est of  these  creatures  yet  found  was  a  small  animal,  only 
about  the  size  of  a  fox,  with  four  well-developed  toes  on 
the  fore-foot  and  rudiments  of  the  fifth  toe. 

6.  Gradual  Loss  of  Superfluous  Toes. — Since  that  time  the 
horse  has  gradually  increased  in  size  and  lost  its  super- 
fluous toes,  and  naturalists  now  have  the  satisfaction  of 
tracing  its  descent  by  means  of  these  fossils  through  the 


HORSES. 


355 


intermediate  four-toed  and  three-toed  forms,  down  to  the 
horse  of  the  present  day  with  its  one  perfect  toe. 

7.  These  changes  must,  of  course,  have  occurred  by  easy 
stages.  The  side  toes,  no  doubt,  gradually  diminished  in 
size,  and  at  the  same  time  the  middle  toe  grew  larger  and 


Fig.  244. — GROUP  OF  HORSES. 


stronger,  supported  by  the  solid  hoof,  which  is  merely  a 
very  thick  nail. 

8.  The  Modern  Horse  a  One-toed  Animal. — Horses,  there- 
fore, as  we  know  them,  walk  on  this  long  middle  toe, 
which  is  covered  with  the  strong  hoof,  and  forms  what  is 


356      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

generally  spoken  of  as  the  foot.  What  we  call  the  horse's 
knee  is  in  reality  the  heel,  and  under  the  skin  just  below 
the  heel  may  yet  be  found  two  slender  "splint-bones," 
which  are  remnants  of  the  lost  toes  of  the  ancestor  of  our 
modern  horse. 

9.  Valuable  Service  to  Man. — Horses  are  remarkably  in- 
telligent and  docile,  showing  a  strong  memory  for  places. 
They  yield  themselves  wholly  to  the  service  of  man,  often 
entering  with  enthusiasm  into  the  work  assigned  to  them; 
and  we  can  scarcely  estimate  the  assistance  they  have 
rendered  him  in  the  spread  of  civilization  throughout  the 
world.  Each  of  the  various  breeds  of  horses  is  suited  to 
some  special  kind  of  labor;  and  we  may  notice  that  while 
one  breed  excels  in  speed,  and  another  in  strength,  others 
are  valued  for  their  powers  of  endurance. 

'  10.  Small  Horses  in  Cold  Countries.— In  cold  and  stormy 
regions  the  horses  are  apt  to  be  small  and  shaggy,  as  is  the 
case  with  the  ponies  of  the  Shetland  Islands.  These  po- 
nies are  exposed  to  bitter  cold  in  their  native  island  home, 
and  they  need  all  the  protection  which  is  afforded  by  their 
thick,  shaggy  coats. 

11.  Wild  Horses  go  in  Troops. — Horses  in  a  wild  condi- 
tion are  in  the  habit  of  congregating  in  large  troops,  which 
are  led  by  one  male.     Fierce  conflicts  occur  between  the 
males  to  secure  this  leadership,  and  the  unsuccessful  ones 
are  sometimes  driven  off  from  the  flock  into  a  solitary  life. 
They  fight  by  throwing  the  fore -feet  with  great  force 
upon  their  enemies,  or  by  kicking  violently  with  the  hind- 
feet. 

12.  The  Zebra. — Closely  related  to  the  horse  is  the  zebra, 
which  is  conspicuous  for  its  slender  limbs  and  beautifully 
striped  silky  hair.     It  is  altogether  one  of  the  most  ele- 
gant animals,  but  its  disposition  is  vicious,  and  it  is  not 


HOUSES. 


357 


Fig.  245.— ZKBRAS. 

easily  tamed.  Zebras  are  natives  of  the  southern  part  of 
Africa,  where  they  graze  in  large  herds  upon  the  grassy 
plains. 


358      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN  THE   SEA   AND   ON  THE   LAND. 


LIL 
DEER. 

SUB- KINGDOM,  VERTEBRATA:    CLASS,  MAMMALIA. 

1.  The  Deer.  —  The  beautiful  deer,  with  their  slender 
limbs  and   small  heads  proudly  erect,  are  general  favor- 
ites, but  to  appreciate  them  fully  they  should  be  seen  in 
their  natural  wild  state.     The  forests  of  most  countries, 
except  Australia,  are  adorned  with  their  elegant  figures, 
and  as  they  are  timid  animals  they  have  a  tendency  to 
live   together  in  flocks.      They  run  rapidly,  and  are  ex- 
ceedingly graceful  in  all  their  movements. 

2.  Antlers  unlike  the  Horns  of  other  Animals. — Perhaps 
the  most  distinguishing  feature  of  the  deer  family  is  their 
large  horns,  or  antlers,  as  they  are  called,  which  are  pos- 
sessed by  the  males  only,  and  are  quite  different  from  or- 
dinary horns.     The  antlers  are  solid,  and  are  branching  in 
form.     Regularly,  at  the  end  of  each  year,  they  fall  off 
and  are  replaced  by  new  ones,  whereas  the  horns  of  most 
animals  are  hollow,  and  grow  around  a  bony  core  which  is 
part  of  the  skeleton  itself;  consequently,  these  horns  are 
never  shed,  and  one  set  lasts  during  a  whole  lifetime. 

3.  The  Growth  of  the  Antlers.— The  antlers  of  the  deer 
are  in  their  finest  condition  in  the  autumn  and  winter,  but 
towards  spring  the  stag  is  observed  to  rub  his  head  rest- 
lessly against  the  trees,  as  if  to  rid  himself  of  an  uncom- 
fortable burden,  and  when  the  antlers  finally  drop  off  he 


DEER. 


359 


is  deprived  not  only  of  his  chief  ornament,  but  also  of  his 
means  of  defense.  Tender  little  knobs  push  up  in  place 
of  the  cast-off  antlers,  and  he  is  soon  furnished  with  a  fine 
new  pair. 

4.  These  knobs  are  covered  with  a  velvety  skin,  which 
is  richly  supplied  with  blood-vessels,  bringing  material  to 


Fig.  246. — STAG,  OR  RED-DEER. 

build  up  the  new  antlers.  The  antlers  grow  rapidly,  and 
send  out  branches  at  the  proper  points,  so  that  within 
four  or  five  months  another  pair  of  horns  takes  the  place 
of  the  old  ones,  and  the  deer  is  again  fully  equipped,  and 
eager  to  try  his  strength  with  his  fellows. 

5.  When  the  antlers  have  reached  their  full  size,  the 


360      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 

blood-vessels  to  which  we  have  alluded  are  gradually 
closed,  and  as  the  velvety  skin  is  thus  deprived  of  its 
nourishment,  it  dries  and  peels  off,  leaving  the  strong  new 


CEsopaagu 


3d  stomach. 


Intestine. . 

I 
Fig.  247. — STOMACH  OF  A  RUMINATING  ANIMAL. 

horn  uncovered.  The  antlers  usually  gain  one  additional 
prong  with  every  new  growth,  and  in  this  way  become 
larger  and  more  branched  each  succeeding  year,  until  in 
old  age  they  are  very  large. 

6.  Ruminating  Animals. — Deer  are  ruminating  animals, 
or,  in  other  words,  they  chew  the  cud  the  same  as  oxen  do. 
You  may  not  have  had  an  opportunity  to  observe  this  for 
yourselves  in  the  deer,  but  no  doubt  you  have  watched 
the   cow  contentedly  chewing  her  cud  during  her  hours 
of  leisure,  and  perhaps  you  have  wondered  at  those  lumps 
that  rose  in  her  throat  soon  after  you  saw  her  swallow  her 
food. 

7.  Digestion  in  Ruminating  Animals. — This  process  of 
chewing  the  cud  is  truly  a  curious  one,  and  we  must  now 
try  to  find  out  what  we  can  about  the  digestive  apparatus 


PEER. 


361 


of  the  deer,  the  cow,  the  sheep,  and  other  animals  which 
possess  a  habit  so  peculiar. 

8.  These  ruminating  animals  feed  entirely  upon  vegeta- 
ble substances,  of  which  they  take  large  quantities,  and  it 
is  their  custom  to  swallow  their  food  hastily  without  much 
chewing,  and  then  afterwards  to  raise  it  into  their  mouths 
and  masticate  it  thoroughly  at  their  leisure.  They  are  en- 
abled to  do  this  by  having  a  very  complicated  stomach, 
which  is  divided  into  four  chambers,  as  shown  in  Fig.  247. 


••HBteMMM 

Fig.  248. — REINDEER  DIGGING  IN  SNOW. 

9.  In  the  first  place,  we  must  notice  that  these  animals 
have  no  incisors  on  the  upper  jaw,  and  the  grass  is  drawn 
into  the  mouth  with  their  long  tongues  and  bitten  off 
against  the  hard  upper  gum.  When  swallowed,  the  food 


362      ANIMAL    LIFE    IN   THE   SEA   AND    ON   THE    LAND. 

enters  the  first  large  stomach,  or  "paunch,"  where  it  is 
moistened  with  digestive  juices,  and  then  passes  into  the 
"  reticulum,"  the  inner  surface  of  which  is  divided  into 
small  cells  like  a  honey-comb.  Here  the  food  is  pressed 
into  little  balls,  which,  by  a  process  of  muscular  contrac- 
tion exactly  opposite  to  that  of  swallowing,  return  to  the 
mouth  to  be  eaten  over  again. 


Fig.  249. — TRAVELLING  IN  LAPLAND. 

10.  The  food,  on  being  swallowed  the  second  time,  de- 
scends to  the  third  cavity,  and  in  doing  so  you  will  see 
that  it  must  pass  directly  over  the  openings  into  the  first 
and  second  stomachs;  but  the  lip-like  edges  of  these  open- 
ings seem  to  have  the  power  of  selecting  what  shall  be 
received  and  what  shall  be  allowed  to  pass  by. 

11.  This  third  cavity  is  called  the  "many-plies,"  from 
folds  in  the  lining  which  resemble  the  leaves  of  a  book. 
The  fourth  stomach,  the  "  abomasum,"  supplies  the  gastric 
juice,  and  it  is  the  true  organ  of  digestion. 

12.  Manner  of  Feeding  suited  to  timid  Animals. —  How 
admirably  this  manner  of  receiving  food  is  suited  to  the 


DEER. 


363 


Fig.  250. — ANTELOPE. 

shy  and  timid  deer  !  They  are  so  easily  alarmed  that  it 
must  be  greatly  to  their  advantage  to  be  able  to  swallow 
their  food  rapidly  and  run  away  to  their  shady  retreats. 


364      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN    THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

13.  Cloven-footed  Animals. — Those  animals  that  chew  the 
cud  are  also  "  cloven-footed ;"  that  is  to  say,  they  have  two 
toes  encased  in  hoofs  which  have  the  appearance  of  one 


Fig.  251.— THE  KOODOO. 

hoof  that  has  been  split  into  two  equal  parts.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  toes,  deer  have  two  smaller  toes  at  the  back 
of  the  foot  which  seldom  touch  the  ground,  but  still  they 
are  encased  in  dainty  little  hoofs. 

14.  The  Reindeer.  —  Reindeer  are  confined  to  the  ex- 
treme north  of  Europe  and  America,  and  they  are  the 
only  species  of  deer  that  have  been  thoroughly  domesti- 
cated. They  are  not  only  used  for  drawing  sleds,  but 
their  milk  and  flesh  supply  the  natives  with  food,  and 
their  skin  is  valuable  for  clothing.  In  Norway  and  Swe- 
den large  herds  of  reindeer  are  owned  by  the  farmers, 


DEER.  365 

who  roam  over  the  mountain  districts  with  tbeir  herds  to 
find  summer  pasture. 

15.  What  the  Reindeer  Eat. — These  strong,  heavy  ani- 
mals eat  scarcely  anything  but  reindeer  moss  and  lichens, 
which  they  obtain  by  digging  with  their  fore-feet  under 
the  snow,  and  in  doing  so,  as  the  hole  grows  deeper  and 
larger,  the  animal  is  sometimes  almost  hidden  from  sight. 
They  claim  the  privilege  of  searching  their  own  food,  and 
will  not  eat  moss  which  has  been  gathered  for  them. 

16.  Good  Travellers. — Reindeer  are  fine  travellers,  espe- 
cially in  cold  weather.     When  the  way  is  good,  and  not 
too  hilly,  they  can  travel  a  hundred  miles  in  a  day.    Their 


Fig.  252. — THK  GAZELLE. 

feet  are  well  suited  to  walking  upon  snow,  owing  to  the 
manner  in  which  the  hoofs  separate  in  treading,  and  by 
the  long,  coarse  hair  growing  between  the  hoofs.  The 
foot  may  also  be  closed  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  a  firm 
support  in  rocky  places.  This  is  the  only  kind  of  deer  ill 
which  the  females  have  antlers. 


366      ANIMAL    LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


Fig.  253. — THE  GRACEFUL  CHAMOIS. 

17.  Proofs  of  the  Extreme  Heat  and  Cold  in  Past  Ages.— 
Remains  of  the  reindeer  have  been  found  over  the  greater 
part  of  Europe,  and  their  presence  in  the  same  localities 
that  have  at  other  times  been  frequented  by  the  lion,  the 
rhinoceros,  and  the  hippopotamus  points  to  the  fact  that 


DEER.  367 

these  regions  have  been  subject  at  different  periods  to 
the  extremes  of  both  heat  and  cold. 

18.  Antelopes.  —  Antelopes  are  especially  abundant  in 
Africa.    These  attractive  animals  are  not  classed  with  the 
true  deer  family,  for  they  have  hollow  horns,  and  they 
do  not  shed  them.     The  horns  of  some  species  of  ante- 
lopes are  dark  and  rich  in  color,  and  grow  into  beautiful 
shapes.      The  spirally  twisted   horns  of  the  koodoo,  for 
example,  are  very  ornamental. 

19.  The  Gazelle. — The  best  known  of  the  antelopes  is 
probably  the  gazelle,  which  is  admired  for  the  elegance 
of  its  form  and  movements,  as  well  as  for  the  mild  ex- 
pression   of   its  "  soft   black   eye."     The   gazelle   roams 
through  the  wilds  of  Africa  in  large  herds,  and  this  gentle 
creature   forms   the  ordinary  food  of   the  lion  and  the 
panther. 

20.  The  Chamois. — The  chamois  is  a  European  antelope, 
living  in  flocks  among  the  mountains,  where  it  bounds 
with  great  ease  over  the  rocky  cliffs. 


368      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


LIII. 
CAMELS. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  VERTEBRATA :   CLASS,  MAMMALIA. 

1.  Camels  as  Beasts  of  Burden. — For  centuries  the  camel 
has  been  used  by  merchants  and  travellers  as  a  beast  of 
burden  to  cross  the  sandy  plains  of  Africa  and  Arabia, 
and  long  before  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  was  discovered 


Fig.  254.— CAMEL. 

treasures  of  gems  and  spices  and  the  richly  woven  fabrics 
of  the  East  were  carried  on  the  backs  of  these  large,  un- 
gainly animals  to  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
that  they  might  be  distributed  to  all  parts  of  Europe. 


CAMELS. 


369 


2.  The  Structure  adapted  to  Life  on  the  Desert.  —  Cam- 
els, from  their  peculiarities  of  structure,  are  well  adapted 
to  the  life  they  lead  on  the  desert.  They  are  not  only 
ruminating  animals,  but  they  can  go  for  many  days  with- 
out water,  bein^  provided  with  a  singular  arrangement  of 


Fig.  255. — SKELETON  OF  A  CAMEL. 

cells  in  the  first  stomach,  or  paunch,  which  they  fill  when 
they  have  access  to  water,  and  keep  as  a  reservoir  for  fut- 
ure use.  Their  two  long  toes  rest  on  a  broad,  horny  cush- 
ion which  prevents  them  from  sinking  in  the  loose  sand, 
and  their  nostrils  can  be  closed  at  will  to  protect  them 
from  the  fine  particles  of  dust  blown  over  the  desert  by 
the  fierce  winds  that  visit  it. 

3.  The  Hump  a  Reserve  Supply  of  Food. — The  large,  un- 
sightly hump  on  the  back  of  tVie  camel  is  not  a  part  of  the 
skeleton,  as  you  will  see  by  referring  to  Fig.  255,  but  it  is 
only  a  mass  of  fat  which  slowly  diminishes  in  size  when 
25 


370      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 

the  animal  is  on  long  journeys  and  food  is  scarce.  The 
fat  which  is  stored  up  in  the  hump  is  gradually  absorbed 
into  the  blood,  so  the  camel,  in  reality,  carries  a  reserve 


Fig.  256. — BACTKIAN  CAMEL. 

supply  of  food  in  this  hump.  The  African  or  Arabian 
camel  has  but  one  hump,  and  is  often  called  the  dromedary. 
The  Bactrian  camel  from  Central  Asia  has  two  humps. 

4.  Camels  have  been  Domesticated. — Camels  belong  ex- 
clusively to  Asia  and  Africa,  but  they  are  no  longer  found 
in  a  wild  state,  man  having  appropriated  them  to  his  own 
uses.     They  are   celebrated  for  their  gentleness  and  pa- 
tience, and  are  often  required  to  travel  with  enormous  bur- 
dens.    When  quite  young  they  are  trained  to  kneel  down 
and  receive  these  heavy  loads,  and  in  doing  so  they  afford 
a  most  unusual  picture  of  meekness  and  long-suffering. 

5.  Their  Uses  to  Man.— The  wealth  of  the  Arab  often 
consists  in  his  camels,  the  uses  of  which  are  as  various  as 
those  of  the  reindeer  to  the  Laplander.    The  flesh  and  milk 
yield  him  food,  the  hair  he  weaves  into  clothing,  the  hides 


CAMELS. 


371 


he  makes  into  sandals,  saddles,  and  other  useful  articles. 
Seated  with  his  family  upon  the  back  of  his  trusty  camel, 
he  is  conveyed  with  long,  shambling  strides  upon  his 
weary  journeys;  his  goods  and  chattels,  piled  up  on  the 
saddle  and  hung  from  its  sides  in  indescribable  confusion, 
are  moved  from  place  to  place  by  the  same  conveyance. 

6.  Camels  raised  in  the  United  States. — The  experiment 
of  raising  camels  in  the  United  States  has  been  tried  with 
a  good  degree  of  success,  and  they  now  breed  in  Nevada. 

7.  The  Llama. — The  llama  of  South  America  is  quite 
similar  to  the  camel,  though  it  is  smaller  and  has  no  hump, 
and  is   in  every 

way  fitted  for  a 
mountain  life. 
Each  toe  has  a 
separate  pad  and 
a  strongly  curved 
hoof,  which  as- 
sists in  climbing 
steep  rocks,  and 
the  llama  bounds 
over  the  cliffs  of 
the  Andes  with 
the  ease  and  ac- 
tivity of  a  goat. 
The  teeth  of 
camels  and  lla- 
mas differ  from 
those  of  all  oth- 
er animals  that 


Fig.  257. — THK  LLAMA. 


chew  the  cud,  for  these  are  the  only  ruminants  that  have 
incisors  growing  in  the  upper  jaw. 


372     ANIMAL    LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON    THE    LAND. 


LIV. 
ELEPHANTS. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  VERTEBRATA:   CLASS,  MAMMALIA. 

1.  The  Elephant's  Trunk.  —  The  great  size  of  the  ele- 
phant, and  the  remarkable  trunk  which  it  uses  so  nimbly, 
are  sure  to  awaken  our  interest  whenever  we  see  these  cu- 
rious animals.     Did  you  ever  suspect  that  this  wonderful 
trunk  or  proboscis  is  merely  the  nose  of  the  elephant  pro- 
digiously lengthened  out?  for  that  is  just  what  it  is — a 
very  long  nose,  which,  oddly  enough,  serves  also  for  an 
upper  lip.     The  nostrils  extend  down  through  the  whole 
length  of  the  trunk,  and  above  the  openings  into  them 
there  is  a  finger-like  tip,  which  is  used  as  a  hand  in  pick- 
ing up  small  objects. 

2.  The  trunk  is  well  supplied  with  muscles,  which  allow 
it  to  bend  freely  in  every  imaginable  direction,  and  it  is  a 
most  useful  implement  to  the  elephant,  whose  short  neck 
and  long  tusks  interfere  with  the  usual  manner  of  obtain- 
ing food  and  drink.     Elephants  cannot  reach  the  ground 
with  their  heads  to  bite  off  their  food,  or  to  satisfy  their 
thirst  at  the  brooks  and  streams,  consequently  all  their 
food  is  lifted  to  the  mouth  by  the  finger-like  tip  of  the 
trunk,  and,  in  drinking,  water  is  sucked  up  into  its  hollow 
tubes.     The  end  of  the  trunk  is  afterwards  doubled  up 
and  placed  in  the  mouth,  and  the  supply  of  water  it  con- 
tains is  emptied  down  the  throat.     Besides  these  impor- 


viriv 


ELEPHANTS. 


tant  uses,  the  trunk  is  also  the  organ  of  smell,  of  touch, 
and  of  defence. 

3.  The  Skull  and  Tusks.  —  If  you  should  have  an  oppor- 
tunity to  examine  the  skull  of  an  elephant,  you  will  find 


Fig.  £58. — AFRICAN  ELEPHANTS. 

it  to  contain  many  hollow 
spaces  which  are  filled  with  air, 
and  which  greatly  reduce  the 
weight  of  the  large,  clumsy-look- 
ing head.  Its  size  and  strength, 
however,  are  sufficient  to  support 

the  huge  tusks,  which  often  weigh  from  one  hundred  and 
fifty  to  two  hundred  pounds.  The  tusks  are  the  incisor 
teeth  of  the  upper  jaw,  which  continue  to  grow  during 
the  lifetime  of  the  elephant,  and  sometimes  reach  a  great 
length. 


374      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 

4.  Their  Home  and  Habits. — These  large  animals  live  in 
herds  in  the  forests  of  tropical  Asia  and  Africa.     They 
feed  upon  grass  and  foliage,  and  seem  to  prefer  the  shade 
of  the  forests  to  the  glaring  sunlight,  as  they  generally 
stroll  out  towards  night. 

5.  The  African  Elephant. — The  only  species  now  living 


Fig.  259. — INDIAN  ELEPHANTS. 

are  the  Indian  elephant  and  the  African  elephant.  The 
African  elephant  has  great,  flapping  ears,  and  it  is  more 
fierce  than  that  of  India.  It  is  hunted  chiefly  for  its 
tusks,  which  yield  fine  ivory,  and  are  therefore  very  val- 
uable. The  demand  for  tusks  is  so  great  that  there  is 
reason  to  fear  these  elephants  will  be  entirely  destroyed 
in  order  to  supply  the  trade.  The  immense  size  of  these 


ELEPHANTS.  375 

living  curiosities  reminds  us,  in  a  way  that  no  other  ani- 
mals do,  of  the  huge  monsters  of  various  kinds  that  for- 
merly dwelt  upon  our  earth. 

6.  The  Indian  Elephant.  —  Indian  elephants  have  mild 
dispositions,  but  if  they  are  irritated  they  become  furious 
and  revengeful.    It  is  stated  that  they  can  be  easily  tamed, 
no  matter  what  their  age  or  size  may  be,  and  in  India  they 
are  used  for  many  kinds  of  labor  which  require  intelli- 
gence and  skill.     Strangest  of  all  these  employments  is 
that  of  catching  wild  elephants. 

7.  The  Capture  of  Wild  Elephants. — To  assist  in  captur- 
ing their  fellows  after  having  been  deprived  of  their  own 
liberty  seems  more  than  could  be  expected  of  these  pow- 
erful animals;  yet  they  enter  into  the  labor  with  spirit, 
as  if  they  understood  the  object  to  be  accomplished  and 
the  best  means  to  attain  it.     They  urge  on  the  reluctant 
ones  among  the  wild  animals  which  they  are  pursuing, 
pushing  them  forward  if  necessary,  and  if  any  are  thrown 
down   they  kneel  upon  them  and  keep  them  upon  the 
ground  by  their  immense  weight  until  they  can  be  se- 
cured by  ropes.     It  is  claimed  that  these  are  not  tricks 
taught  to  a  few  individuals,  but  that  all  working  elephants 
in  India  are  expected  to  possess  such  intelligence  and  sa- 
gacity. 

8.  White  Elephants.  —  The   "white   elephants"   about 
which  we  hear  so  much  are  merely  albinos  of  the  Indian 
species.     In  other  words,  they  are  of  a  lighter  color  than 
most  of  their  kind.     Generally  they  are  far  from  white. 
Now  and  then  an  elephant  is  found  with  white  spots  on 
its  skin,  or  sometimes  the  whole  animal  is  of  a  light  color; 
but  whether  it  shall  be  considered  a  u  white  elephant "  or 
not  depends  upon  the  decision  of  the  people  of  Burmah 
and  Siam.    In  these  countries  they  are  regarded  as  sacred, 


376      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON    THE   LAND. 

and  are  claimed  by  the  kings,  who  pay  handsomely  for 
them  and  keep  them  in  royal  style. 

9.  Mammoths  and  Mastodons. — Although'  but  two  spe- 
cies of  elephants  now  remain,  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  these  giants  were  numerous  in  olden  times.     Mam- 
moths and  mastodons  are  no  longer  living,  but  their  fossil 
remains  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  America  are  found  abun- 
dantly at  the  bottom  of  swamps,  where  the  heavy  beasts 
seem  to  have  mired. 

1 0.  Several  mammoths,  covered  with  long  woolly  hair, 
have  been  found  perfectly  preserved  in  the  frozen  gravel 
of  Siberia.     Much  of  the  ivory  of  commerce  comes  from 
Siberia,  and  it  is  obtained  from  these  extinct  mammoths. 


LIONS   AND   TIGERS. 


377 


LV. 
LIONS  AND  TIGERS. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  VERTEBRATA:   CLASS.  MAMMALIA. 

1.  The  Lion.  —  Among  all  the  dreaded  beasts  of  prey 
there  are  none  so  well  calculated  to  inspire  their  victims 
with  terror  as  the  lion,  on  account  of  his  great  size,  his 


Fig.  260.— LIONS. 


majestic  bearing,  his  fierce  countenance,  and,  above  all,  his 
terrible  roar.  We  shall  find  by  examining  his  formidable 
mouth  that,  like  the  mouths  of  other  carnivorous  animals, 


378      ANIMAL    LIFE    IN    THE    SEA    AND   ON   THE    LAND. 


it  is  furnished  with  long,  sharp  teeth,  well  suited  for  tear- 
ing prey,  and  the  tongue  is  roughened  by  horny  points 
directed  backward,  which  are  of  great  assistance  in  scrap- 
ing the  flesh  from  the  bones. 

2.  The  Characteristics  of  the  Cat  Family,— Lions  are  of- 
ten spoken  of  as  belonging  to  the  cat  family,  a  group  hav- 
ing strongly  marked  peculiarities.     The  members  of  this 
family  are  compact  in  form,  without  much  fat ;  they  are 
very  strong,  but,  nevertheless,  they  are  remarkably  light 
upon  their  feet,  and  they  tread  upon 
the  tips  of  their  toes,  the  heel  being 
raised  from  the  ground4  and  the  sole 
of  the  foot  covered  with  hair  like  the 
rest  of  the  body.    These  animals  are 
nocturnal  in  their  habits  —  that  is, 
they  prowl  about  at  night — and  they 
all  spring  suddenly  upon  their  prey. 
3.  The  toes  are  armed  with  hook- 
ed  claws,  which,  when   not  in   use, 
are   drawn   up  within   sheaths  that 
they  may  not  become  blunted,  and 
the  same  curious  contrivance  which 
draws  in  the  claws  provides  also  for 
darting  them  out  again  as  soon  as 

they  are  needed.  You  may  not  choose  to  examine  the 
lion's  foot  very  closely,  especially  as  you  can  see  this 
peculiarity  with  greater  ease  and  more  safety  in  the  vel- 
vety paw  of  a  cat.  When  the  cat  is  in  an  amiable  mood, 
its  claws  are  so  nicely  folded  in  that  the  paw  looks  per- 
fectly harmless;  but  if  the  cat  should  become  vexed  while 
you  are  watching  it,  and  throw  out  its  paw  to  scratch,  the 
sharp  claws  will  soon  show  themselves  ready  for  service. 
The  soft  pads  under  the  toes  give  these  animals  a  stealthy. 


Fig.  261. — FOOT  OF  A 
LION. 


LIONS   AND   TIGERS.  379 

noiseless  tread,  and  they  also  serve  to  break  the  jar  occa- 
sioned by  their  violent  leaps. 

4.  Lions  confined  to  Asia  and  Africa. — Lions  are  found 
only  in  the  warm  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa.     They  are  so 
strong  that  they  can  carry  large  animals  in  their  jaws, 
running  and  leaping  the  while  as  if  they  were  not  bur- 
dened with  the  heavy  load.     The  male  lion  is  ornamented 
with  a  bushy  mane,  which  covers  the  shoulders,  as  well  as 
the  head  and  neck,  and  adds  greatly  to  his  majestic  ap- 
pearance.     The  lioness  is  much  smaller  than  her  mate  ; 
she  has  from  two  to  four  cubs  at  a  time,  and  these  are  as 
playful  as  young  kittens. 

5.  Lions  are  Cowardly  Animals. — Although  lions  are  no- 
ble-looking animals,  they  are  by  no  means  courageous  in 
disposition.     On  the  contrary,  they  are  extremely  coward- 
ly, sleeping  through  the  daytime  and  lying  in  wait  for 
their  prey  at  night.     A  dark,  stormy  night  is  their  favor- 
ite time  for  starting  out,  consequently  persons  travelling 
through  the  countries  frequented  by  lions  seldom  meet 
with  them  on  their  journeys.     Those  who  have  seen  them, 
however,  describe  them  as  turning  quietly  round  and  trot- 
ting off  when  they  find  themselves  discovered.     They  are 
much  less  feared  by  the  natives  than  the  ferocious  tiger 
and  the  leopard. 

6.  Redeeming  Traits  of  Character. — The  tenderness  which 
the  lion  shows  to  his  mate,  and  his  care  to  assist  her  in 
hunting  food  for  their  little  ones,  are  redeeming  traits  in 
his  character  which  are  gladly  recorded  in  his  favor. 

7.  The  Tiger. — The  tiger,  which  is  a  native  of  Asia,  is 
equal  to  the  lion  in   size,  and  much  more  active  in   its 
movements.     Its  favorite  manner  of  capturing  prey  is  to 
conceal  itself  near   some  spot  to  which  its  victims  are 
known  to  resort ;  then,  with  a  terrific  roar,  it  springs  upon 


380      ANIMAL   LIFE    IN    THE   SEA    AND    ON   THE   LAND. 


Fig.  262. — TIGER  ATTACKED  BY  A  CROCODILE. 

the  unsuspecting   animals  and  stuns  them  by  its  great 
weight. 

8.  There   are  few   animals  handsomer  than  the  tiger. 
Its  color  is  a  reddish-yellow,  striped  with  irregular  bars 
of  black,  while  the  under  part  of  the  body  is  white. 

9.  The  Mimicry  of  the  Lion  and  Tiger.— In  comparing  the 
gay  coat  of  the  tiger  with  the  uniformly  dull  one  of  the 
lion,  we  can  but  admire  the  mimicry  of  both.     The  color- 
ing in  these  two  animals  is  very  different,  yet  the  general 
appearance  of  each  one  answers  the  purpose  of  protection 
in  its  native  haunts.     Thus  the  dull,  tawny  fur  of  the  lion 
is  so  much  the  color  of  the  sandy  desert  that  the  king 
of  beasts  can  hardly  be  distinguished  at  a  distance,  as  he 
roams  over  its  barren  wastes.      On  the  other  hand,  the 


LIONS   AND   TIGERS. 


381 


showy  coat  of  the  tiger  serves  equally  well  as  a  conceal- 
ment in  the  jungles  frequented  by  this  stealthy  animal, 
since  the  stripes  on  the  back  have  a  general  resemblance 
to  the  tall,  coarse  grasses  among  which  it  hides. 

10.  The  Leopard. — In  the  same  way,  when  we  consider 
the  habits  of  the  leopard,  we  shall  find  that  its  conspicu- 
ous covering  only  adds  to  its  security.  Those  handsome 
spots  which  strike  the  eye  so  quickly  in  the  caged  animal 
are  not  unlike  the  flickering  shadows  of  the  leaves  in  a 


Fig.  263. — LEOPARD. 

forest  when  the  bright  sunlight  falls  upon  it;  so  that  the 
spotted  leopard,  when  at  home  in  its  native  woods,  har- 
monizes well  with  the  patches  of  sunshine  and  shadow  by 
which  it  is  surrounded. 


382      ANIMAL    LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


LVI. 
SEALS  AND  WALRUSES. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  VEBTEBRATA:   CLASS,  MAMMALIA. 

1.  Carnivorous  Animals  living  in  the  Ocean.  — Return- 
ing once  more  to  the  dwellers  in  the  ocean,  about  which 
there  is  always  a  peculiar  charm,  let  us  now  study  the 


Fig.  264. — HERD  OF  SEALS. 

seals  and  walruses.  These  are  truly  carnivorous  ani- 
mals, fitted  for  living  in  the  ocean,  and  their  small  heads, 
sloping  shoulders,  and  plump  bodies,  gradually  tapering 


SEALS   AND    WALRUSES. 


383 


towards  the  tail,  offer  little  resistance  in  gliding  through 
the  water. 

2.  The  short  limbs  also  are  well  suited  to  swimming; 
the  hinder-most  ones,  however,  cannot  move  very  freely, 
for  they  are  set  far  back,  and  are  so  bound  down  by  the 


Fig.  265. — HARP-SEAL  MOTHER  AND  HER  LITTLE  ONE. 

skin  that  they  have  the  appearance  of  forming  part  of  the 
tail.  The  close,  thick  fur  and  the  layer  of  fat  under  the 
skin  have  their  uses  likewise,  and  protect  these  animals 
from  the  extreme  cold  to  which  they  are  exposed. 

3.  Legends  of  Mermaids  and  Sea-nymphs. — The  prettily 
rounded  head  of  the  seal  resembles  the  head  of  a  dog,  and 
when  it  emerges  unexpectedly  from  the  water  its  intelli- 
gent countenance  and  large,  dark  eyes  are  quite  startling, 
and  may  easily  have  given  rise  to  some  of  the  legends  of 
mermaids  and  sea-nymphs. 

4.  A  Sentinel  on  Guard. — Seals  feed  chiefly  upon  fish,  and 


384      ANIMAL    LIFE    IN    THE   SEA   AND    ON   THE    LAND. 

spend  most  of  their  time  in  the  water,  coming  on  shore  to 
sleep  in  the  sunshine  and  to  suckle  their  young.  One  of 
their  number  is  selected  to  act  as  sentinel  while  the  others 
lie  asleep  on  the  rocks,  and  this  sentinel  keeps  watch  from 
some  high  point,  ready  to  give  warning  if  they  are  threat- 
ened with  any  danger. 

5.  The  Value  of  Seals  to  the  Greenlanders,  —  Seals  are 
found  in  almost  all  seas,  but  they  are  especially  abundant 
in  cold  climates.     They  form  the  main  subsistence  of  the 
Greenlanders,  who  become  very  skilful  in  catching  them. 
The  flesh  is  used  for  food,  the  fat  for  fuel  and  for  giving 
light,  and  the  skin  for  clothing  and  for  covering  their  huts 
and  their  boats. 

6.  Seal-skin  Fur. — The  beautiful  seal-skin  fur  which  we 
prize  so  highly  as  an  article  of  clothing  is  obtained  from 
th'e  sea-bear  of  Alaska.     Before  the  skin  is  dressed,  the 
soft,  velvety  fur  is   hidden  by  long,  coarse  hairs  which 
stick  out  beyond  it ;  but  when  the  skins  are  prepared  for 
sale,  these  coarse  hairs  are  pulled  out,  leaving  only  the 
short  yellow  fur  underneath,  which  is  then  dyed  to  pro- 
duce the  favorite  rich  brown  color. 

7.  Sea-lions. — Sea-lions  are  a  large  species  of  seal  having 
external  ears.    They  live  in  great  companies  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  and  towards  spring  they  come  to  the  shore  to  raise 
their  little  ones.     The  males  land  first,  and  take  their  po- 
sitions upon  the  rocks  to  await  the  arrival  of  the  females 
a  little  later.     Fierce  struggles  then  take  place  as  they 
choose  their  mates  from  the  herd. 

8.  Hundreds  of  these  sea-lions  may  be  seen   clumsily 
dragging  themselves  over  the  rocks  in  San  Francisco  Bay. 
They  have  a  loud,  shrill  bark,  which  they  frequently  utter, 
not  only  on  the  rocks  but  also  in  the*  water,  when  they 
rise  to  the  surface  for  a  fresh  supply  of  air. 


SEALS   AND   WALRUSES. 


385 


9.  Walruses. — The  walrus  is  much  like  the  seal,  except 
that  it  is  larger  and  heavier,  and  it  has  two  sharp-pointed 


Fig.  266.— WALRUSES. 

tusks  formed  of  the  upper  canine  teeth,  which  grow  down- 
ward, sometimes  to  the  length  of  two  feet.  These  strong 
tusks  must  be  of  great  assistance  to  the  walrus  in  scram- 


386      ANIMAL   LIFE    IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

bling  out  of  the  water  and  mounting  upon  steep  rocks  and 
icebergs. 

10.  Their  Gambols, — Walruses  live  in  large  herds  in  the 
Arctic  seas,  and  are  hunted  for  their  blubber  and  their 
tusks.  Assembled  on  the  ice,  they  appear  to  have  great 
sport  rolling  and  tumbling  heavily  about,  making  the  while 
a  loud,  bellowing  noise.  After  their  frolic  the  whole  party 
generally  fall  asleep,  except  one  walrus,  which  is  left  on 
guard..  The  polar -bear  is  their  great  enemy,  and  this 
expert  diver  and  swimmer  hunts  them  both  in  the  water 
and  upon  land,  so  they  are  never  secure  from  the  danger 
of  an  attack. 


BEAVERS  AND  SQUIRRELS. 


387 


LVII. 
BEAVERS  AND   SQUIRRELS. 

SUB- KINGDOM,  VERTEBRATA  :    CLASS,  MAMMALIA. 

1.  Beavers. — Not  very  long  ago  beavers  were  abundant  in 
nearly  all  the  wooded  districts  of  North  America,  but  they 
have  become  scarce,  and  are  now  found  only  in  wild  and 
unfrequented  parts  of  the  continent.  Their  hind-feet,  as 


Fig.  267. — BEAVER. 

you  see  in  the  picture,  are  webbed  for  swimming,  and 
they  have  a  curious  broad  tail,  flattened  above  and  below 
like  a  paddle,  and  covered  with  thick  skin. 

2.  The  Uses  of  the  Tail, —  They  have  been  said  to  use 
this  tail  as  a  trowel  for  plastering  their  dwellings,  and 


388      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 

also  for  driving  stakes,  but  authentic  accounts  inform  us 
that  the  tail  is  used  merely  as  a  rudder  in  swimming,  and 
as  a  support  to  the  beaver  while  sitting  up  at  its  work. 

3.  Beavers  as  Builders,— An  unusual  degree  of  interest 
is  felt  in  beavers  on  account  of  the  skill  which  they  dis- 
play in  building  their  homes  and  in  felling  timber  for  the 
construction  of  their  dams.     In  the  arduous  labor  of  cut- 
ting down  trees,  the  only  implements  used  are  the  sharp, 
gnawing  teeth;  so  we  must  examine  the  teeth  particular- 
ly that  we  may  see  how  they  are  enabled  to  perform  such 
difficult  tasks. 

4.  The  Teeth  adapted  to  the  Habits  of  Gnawing  Animals. 
— Beavers  belong  to  the  family  of  rodents,  or  gnawing 
animals;  and  as  all  these  animals  feed  upon  nuts,  or  the 
bark  and  woody  stems  of  trees,  they  are  supplied  with 
sharp,  chisel-shaped  teeth,  in  order  to  nibble  tough  woody 
fibres.     Indeed,  the  gnawing  teeth  form  the  strongest  pe- 
culiarity of  this  order. 

5.  In   each  jaw  there   are   two   long,  curved  incisors, 
which  are  perpetually  growing.     The  front  surface  of  the 
teeth  is  covered  with  hard  enamel,  which  does  not  wear 
away  as  rapidly  as  the  body  of  the  tooth  behind  it;  there- 
fore, the  front  part  of  the  teeth  always  forms  a  sharp, 
cutting  edge,  as  shown  in  Fig.  268.     This  wearing  away 
from  gnawing  counteracts  the  continual  growth,  and  keeps 
the  teeth  at  about  the  same  length.     If  by  any  accident 
one  of  the  teeth  is  lost,  its  opposite  neighbor  has  nothing 
to  rub  against  and  wear  it  off,  and  consequently  it  grows 
so  long  as  to  become  a  serious  inconvenience. 

6.  A  further  provision  for  gnawing  is  shown  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  mouth,  the  lower  jaw  being  attached  to 
the  skull  in  such  a  manner  as  to  slide  backward  and  for- 
ward, thus  aiding  in  the  process. 


BEAVERS   AND   SQUIRRELS.  389 

7.  Beaver  Dams. — As  has  been  stated,  beavers  show  re- 
markable intelligence  in  building  their  homes,  and  they 
arrange  them  so  that  the  entrance  may  be  at  all  times  be- 
neath the  water.     When  the  home  of  the  beaver  is  in  a 
stream  or  lake  deep  enough  to  secure  this  important  ob- 
ject, there  is  no  necessity  for  a  dam,  or  for  the  erection  of 
houses,  and  their  dwellings  are  then  hollowed  out  in  the 
banks.     But  if  the  stream  is  shallow,  dams  are  needed  to 
store  up  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  to  conceal  the  en- 
trance to  their  homes,  as  well  as  to  prevent  the  possibility 
of  its  being  blocked  by  ice. 

8.  In  order  to  build  these  dams,  trees  must  be  cut  down 
and  dragged  or  floated  to  the  spot;  stones  and  lumps  of 
earth  are  then  brought  to  keep  the  timbers  and  boughs  in 


Fig.  268. — SKULL  OF  A  BEATER. 

place,  and  everything  is  securely  fastened.  Twigs  and 
pieces  of  wood  are  also  stored  up  for  winter  food  in  case 
the  beavers  should  be  compelled  to  resort  to  such  in-door 
fare. 

9.  Their  Sagacity  in  Cutting  Timber. — All  the  wood-cut- 
ting, as  we  have  seen,  is  done  with  the  sharp  front  teeth, 
and  it  is  accomplished  very  rapidly.  Sitting  upon  the 
tail  and  haunches,  a  single  beaver  gnaws  a  circle  around 


390      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA    AND   ON   THE    LAND. 

the  trunk  of  a  tree,  going  round  again  and  again,  gnawing 
the  groove  deeper  each  time.  At  length,  when  the  trunk 
is  cut  nearly  through,  after  examining  it  frequently,  the 
careful  worker  nibbles  only  upon  the  side  towards  which 
it  wishes  the  tree  to  fall,  taking  care  to  dash  away  at  the 
first  cracking  of  the  timber,  that  it  may  not  be  crushed 
by  the  falling  weight.  The  trunk  is  next  cut  into  the 
desired  lengths  and  dragged  to  the  water,  that  it  may  be 
floated  to  the  dam.  When  large  trees  are  needed,  the 
beavers  are  wise  enough  to  select  those  that  stand  near 
the  edge  of  the  water,  and  they  are  careful  to  gnaw  the 
trees  in  such  a  way  that  they  shall  fall  into  it,  and  thus 
save  the  labor  of  dragging  them. 

10.  These  logs  are  piled  up  to  construct  the  dams,  and 
the  branches  are  plastered  with  mud  and  grass  to  form 
the  house,  w^hich  looks  on  the  outside  like  a  rough,  irregu- 
lar pile;  still  it  is  firm  and  well  suited  to  the  needs  of  the 
beaver. 

11.  A  Beaver  Family. — A  beaver  family  rarely  consists 
of  more  than  twelve  inmates.     Frequently  the  families 
scatter  in  the  spring  and  live  separately  during  the  sum- 
mer; but  before  cold  weather  comes  they  gather  together 
again,  and  every  one,  both  large  and  small,  helps  in  re- 
pairing the  dam  and  the  dwellings,  which  have  suffered 
from  neglect  during  their  absence. 

12.  Squirrels. — The  graceful  squirrels,  jumping  from 
branch  to  branch  among  the  trees,  with  their  long,  bushy 
tails   curled   up    over   their   backs,  and  their  large  ears 
erected  to  catch  the  faintest  sound,  are  attractive  little 
animals  belonging  to  the  same  family  as  the  beaver.    The 
handsome  tail  of  the  squirrel  is  more  than  a  mere  orna- 
ment, for  it  aids  in  leaping,  and  also  makes  a  warm  wrap 
at  night. 


Fis:.  269.— SQUIRREL: 


BEAVERS   AND   SQUIRRELS. 


393 


13.  The  Storehouse  of  the  Squirrels.— Squirrels  are  care- 
ful in  summer  to  lay  up  a  supply  of  nuts  for  winter  use, 
often  carrying  as  many  as  four  or  five  acorns  at  a  time  in 
the  curious  cheek-pouches  with  which  some  species  are 


Fig.  270. — FLYING-SQUIRRELS. 

provided.  A  hollow  tree  is  generally  selected  for  their 
storehouse,  and  the  squirrels  pass  the  cold  weather  in  the 
same  sheltered  domicile,  but  their  nests  are  commonly 
built  in  the  tree-tops. 


394     ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA    AND   ON   THE    LAND. 

14.  A  Squirrel  Nibbling  its  Nut, — When  eating  its  fa- 
vorite nuts,  the  squirrel  sits  upright,  holding  the  nut  dain- 
tily in  its  fore-paws,  and  turning  it  from  side  to  side  while 
it  gnaws  away  at  the  shell  with  its  sharp  little  teeth. 

15.  The  Flying-squirrel, — The  flying -squirrel  is  one  of 
the  prettiest  of  the  squirrels.     It  has  really  no  power  of 
flying,  but  there  is  a  furry  skin  extending  from  the  fore- 
legs to  the  hind-legs,  which,  together  with  the  broad  tail, 
acts  as  a  parachute,  and  supports  the  active  creature  for 
a  time  when  it  leaps  into  the  air.     The  flying-squirrel  is 
seldom  seen,  even  by  those  in  whose  neighborhood  it  lives, 
because  this  shy  little  nut-gatherer  ventures  out  mostly  at 
night. 


BATS. 


395 


LVIII. 
B  ATS. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  VERTEBRATA:   CLASS,  MAMMALIA. 

1 .  Bats  are  True  Mammals. — Bats  are  the  only  mammals 
that  can  truly  fly,  and  in  studying  them  we  must  not  lose 
sight  of  the  fact  that,  although  these  animals  lead  a  life 
similar  to  that  of  birds,  yet  they  are,  in  reality,  mammals. 
They  are  covered  with  soft  fur  instead  of  feathers;  they 
have  large  ears  and  noses,  with  a  distinct  pair  of  nostrils; 


Fig.  271. — SKELETON  OK  A  BAT. 

their  mouths  are  furnished  with  two  rows  of  sharp-pointed 
teeth,  and  their  eyes  are  protected  by  eyelids  and  eye- 
brows. Apparently  these  bright  black  eyes  distinguish 
objects  very  imperfectly  in  the  broad  daylight,  and  they 
seem  to  be  better  fitted  for  the  dim  twilight  or  the  dark- 
ness of  night. 


396      ANIMAL   LIFE    IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE    LAND. 

2.  The  Wings  of  the  Bat— We  may  see  in  the  skeleton 
of  the  bat  (Fig.  271)  how  very  much  the  arms  and  fingers 
are  lengthened  out  to  form  what  we  usually  call  the  wing. 
These  long  bones  support  the  delicate  skin  which  is  spread 
over  them  in  somewhat  the  same  way  that  an  umbrella 
frame  supports  the  silk  which  is  stretched  over  it.     This 
silky  skin  connects  the  fore  limbs  with  the  hind  limbs,  and 
generally  extends  to  the  tail,  making  an  excellent  substi- 
tute for  wings.     As  an  additional  preparation  for  flying, 
there  is  a  keel  on  the  middle  of  the  breastbone  for  the 
attachment  of  flying  muscles,  an  arrangement  similar  to 
that  which  we  noticed  in  birds. 

3.  Their  Delicate  Sense  of  Touch. — Bats  fly  rapidly,  al- 
though their  movements  are  awkward  and  aimless,  con- 
sisting of  innumerable  darts  and  sudden  turns.      Their 
sense  of  touch,  especially  upon  the  smooth  skin  of  the 
wings,  is  very  acute.     This  skin  is  abundantly  supplied 
with  nerves,  and,  by  its  sensitiveness,  it  helps  the  bat  to 
discover  the  presence  of  small  insects  in  the  air.     Large 
numbers  of  gnats,  mosquitoes,  and  «flies  are  devoured  by 
the  bats  as  they  fly  hither  and  thither  in  the  twilight 
hunting  for  this  kind  of  food. 

4.  How  the  Bats  Live. — These  singular  animals  live  al- 
most entirely  in  the  air,  and  are  quite  helpless  when  on 
the  ground.     They  build  no  nests,  and  sleep  with  their 
heads  hanging  downward,  suspended  by  means  of  hooks 
on  their  hind-legs.     In  this  position  they  pass  their  days 
in  dark  caves  and  crevices,  or,  not  finding  these,  they  take 
refuge  under  eaves  or  around  old  church-steeples.     They 
spend  the  winter  in  a  torpid  state,  clinging  securely  to 
some  such  places  as  have  been  described. 

5.  The  Young  Bats. — Bats  generally  have  two  little  ones 
at  a  birth,  and  these  young  bats  cling  so  closely  to  their 


BATS. 


397 


mother's  breast  that  she  can  fly  with  a  pair  of  them  at- 
tached in  this  way  and  not  appear  to  feel  their  weight. 
The  skin  which  covers  her  tail  is  folded  up  over  them,  and 
her  young  family  is  thus  wrapped  in  a  safe  pouch  while 
she  flits  about  in  search  of  food. 

6.  The  Vampire  Bat. — The  vampire  bat  of  South  Amer- 
ica is  a  large  bat  which  measures  two  and  a  half  feet  in 
width  when  its  wings  are  spread.  It  feeds  upon  insects, 


Fig.  272.— BAT. 

and  has  the  reputation  of  killing  larger  animals,  and  even 
human  beings,  by  piercing  a  small  round  hole  and  sucking 
the  blood  while  its  victims  are  asleep.  Such  cases  rarely 
occur.  The  bat  does  not  draw  enough  blood  to  cause 
death,  but  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  animals  thus 
attacked  may  be  weakened  beyond  recovery  by  the  blood 
continuing  to  flow  silently  from  the  wound  after  the  bat 
has  satisfied  its  appetite  and  gone  away. 


398      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN    THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


\ 


LIX. 
MONKEYS. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  VERTEBRATA :   CLASS,  MAMMALIA. 


1.  Four-handed  Animals. — Monkeys  are  often  spoken  of 
as  four-handed  animals,  because  their  feet  as  well  as  their 
hands  are  fitted  for  grasping  objects.     The  formation  of 
the  foot  is  peculiar  in  having  the  great  toe  separated  from 
the  other  toes,  so  that  it  can  be  brought  opposite  to  them 
in  much  the  same  way  as  our  thumb  folds  upon  the  fin- 
gers, and  in  consequence  of  this  arrangement   the  feet 
may  be  used  as  a  second  pair  of  hands. 

2.  The  Home  of  Monkeys. — Monkeys  are  particularly  nu- 
merous in   the  great  tropical  forests.     They  feed  upon 
fruits,  young  birds,  and  birds'  eggs,  all  of  which  they  find 
in  the  sheltered  tree-tops ;  therefore  they  have  little  occa- 
sion to  come  to  the  ground,  and  they  pass  most  of  their 
lives  among  the  leafy  branches,  running,  jumping,  and 
swinging  from  tree  to  tree. 

3.  The  New  World  Monkeys.  —  The   monkeys   of  this 
continent    are    confined  to    Central  and  South  America, 
and  they  are  known  by  the  general  name  of  New  World 
monkeys.     They  differ  in  many  respects  from  the  Old 
World  monkeys.     They  are  generally  small  animals,  the 
nostrils  are  far  apart,  and  are  placed  near  the  end  of  the 
snout.     Most  of  them  have  long,  prehensile  tails,  and  are 
great  climbers. 


MONKEYS. 


399 


4.  The  Difference  between  the  New  World  and  Old  World 
Monkeys. — There  are  a  few  strongly  marked  characteris- 
tics by  which  these  two  classes  of  monkeys  may  be  readi- 
ly distinguished.  Thus,  you  may  feel  quite  certain  that 
any  monkey  with  a  long  tail  which  it  can  curl  up  at  the 
end  for  the  purpose  of  taking  hold  of  things  belongs  to 


Fig.  273. — WHITE-THROATED  SAPAJOU 


one  of  the  American  species,  whereas,  on  the  other  hand, 
one  that  has  bare  seat-pads  may  be  recognized  as  having 
come  from  the  Old  World.  It  is  generally  the  American 
monkey?  that  are  seen  dressed  in  little  jackets  and  beg- 
ging pennies  for  wandering  musicians. 

5.  Some  of  these  New  World  monkeys  are  very  intelli- 
gent, and  so  droll  and  full  of  mischief  that  their  pranks 


400      ANIMAL    LIFE   IN .  THE   SEA   AND   ON    THE    LAND. 

are  quite  amusing.  Let  us  choose  from  among  these  the 
spider  monkeys,  with  their  slender  bodies  and  very  long 
tails  and  limbs.  This  long  tail  is  so  strong  that  it  answers 
the  purpose  of  a  fifth  hand,  and  is  a  valuable  assistance 


Fig.  274. — MANDRILL. 

in  climbing  and  jumping  from  one  tree  to  another.  The 
active  little  monkey  often  twists  the  end  of  its  tail  around  a 
branch,  and  with  no  other  support  swings  freely  in  the  air. 

6.  The  Old  World  monkeys  are  much  more  highly  de- 
veloped than  their  playful  relations  on  this   side  of  the 
ocean.    Their  nostrils  are  placed  nearer  together,  and  open 
downward  more  like  our  own.     The  arrangement  of  the 
teeth  is  similar  to  that  of  man,  although  the  front  ones 
are  large  and  prominent,  and  they  are  uneven  in  length. 
Many  of  these  monkeys  are  entirely  without  tails,  and  in 
those  species  that  possess  a  tail  this  latter  appendage  is 
never  prehensile. 

7.  The  Gibraltar  Monkey. — The  only  wild  monkey  liv- 
ing in  Europe  at  the  present  time  is  the  celebrated  Gib- 


MONKEYS. 


401 


raltar  monkey,  which  roams  about  the  Rock  of  Gibraltar, 
and  is  carefully  protected  by  the  government. 

8.  Baboons. — Baboons  are  found  in  all  parts  of  Africa, 
and  they  are  the  fiercest  and  most  dangerous  of  the  mon- 
key tribe.  Their  long  snouts  give  to  the  »head  somewhat 
the  shape  of  a  dog's  head.  They  have  cheek-pouches,  in 
which  they  stow  away  their  food,  and  the  hard  pads  of 
bare  skin  on  which  they  sit  are  usually  of  some  bright 
color.  Mandrills  are  a  large  variety  of  baboons,  with 
swollen  cheeks  ornamented  with  red  and  blue  stripes,  and 
their  appearance  is  rendered  exceedingly  disgusting  by 
other  patches  of  gaudy  color.  They  associate  in  bands, 


Fig.  275. — SKELETONS  OF  MAN,  CHIMPANZEE,  AND  ORANG. 

and  are  so  strong  that  when  assisted  and  encouraged  by 
their  fellows  they  do  not  hesitate  to  attack  the  elephant. 

9.  The  Group  of  Monkeys  known  as  Apes.  —  Gibbons, 
orang-outangs,  chimpanzees,  and  gorillas  are   called  apes 

because  their  structure  approaches  more  nearly  to  that  of 

27 


402      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN    THE   SEA   AND   ON  THE   LAND. 

man  than  is  the  case  with  any  other  animal,  and  on  this 
account  they  have  a  peculiar  interest  to  the  student  of 
natural  history. 

10.  Gibbons, — Gibbons  live  in  troops  in  the  forests  of 
India  and  the  adjacent  islands,  and  are  mostly  led  by  one 
male,  who  is  their  chief.  They  are  awkward-looking  ani- 
mals, with  long  arms  that  extend  to  the  ground  when  they 
stand  upright. 


Fig.  276. — FEMALE  ORANG-OFTANG. 

11.  Orang-outangs. — The  ugly  orang-outangs  live  on  the 
islands  of  Borneo  and  Sumatra.  Here  they  inhabit  the 
densest  forests,  and  are  commonly  known  as  "  men  of  the 
woods."  When  fully  grown  they  reach  the  height  of  four 
or  five  feet;  and  although  \hey  are  heavy,  clumsy  creat- 
ures, yet  they  spring  about  among  the  branches  with  great 
ease  and  rapidity,  seldom  coming  down  from  their  haunts 


MONKEYS.  403 

unless  it  be  to  obtain  drink  or  to  shuffle  off  to  some  new 
locality. 

12.  They  do  not  usually  walk  erect,  but  in  moving  along 
the  branches  of  the  forest  they  often  choose  an  upright 
position,  and  support  themselves  by  taking  hold  of  the 
boughs  overhead.  Orangs  build  a  broad  nest  low  down 
in  the  trees  by  piling  leafy  branches  loosely  upon  each 
other  without  interweaving  them.  Here  they  sleep  at 
night,  and  do  not  leave  their  nests  until  the  morning  sun 
has  dried  the  dampness  from  the  surrounding  leaves. 


Fig.  277. — CHIMPANZEE. 

13.  Chimpanzees, — Chimpanzees  are  natives  of  Western 
Africa.  They  have  no  hair  on  the  hands  and  face,  and 
none  on  their  large,  rounded  «ars.  Altogether  their  general 
resemblance  to  man  is  decidedly  grotesque.  Their  arms 


404      ANIMAL    LIFE    IN    THE    SEA    AND  ON   THE    LAND. 


Fig.  278.— GORILLAS. 

are  shorter  than  the  orang's,  still  they  fall  below  the  knee. 
They  can  walk  erect,  although  they  seldom  do  so,  their 
habit  being  to  bend  forward  and  rest  upon  their  hands  as 
they  move  about.  They  live  in  companies  in  the  woods, 


MONKEYS.  405 

and  form  nests  among  the  branches  near  the  ground. 
When  tamed,  chimpanzees  have  sometimes  been  taught 
to  eat  their  food  with  a  spoon  at  the  table,  and  to  imitate 
some  other  customs  of  human  beings. 

14.  Gorillas. — Much  larger  and  more  ferocious  than  the 
chimpanzees  are  the  gorillas  of  Western  Africa,  which  are 
often  found  six  feet  in  height.  These  strong  animals  live 
in  bands,  and  build  nests  which  are  occupied  only  at  night. 
Gorillas  are  now  generally  considered  to  be  the  most  high- 
ly developed  of  the  apes. 


406      ANIMAL   LIFE   IN   THE   SEA   AND   ON   THE   LAND. 


LX. 
MAN. 

SUB-KINGDOM,  VERTEBRATA  :   CLASS,  MAMMALIA. 

WE  have  now  traced  the  gradual  development  of  animal 
life  upon  our  earth,  from  the  simple  forms  to  the  extreme- 
ly complex  ones,  and  our  only  remaining  subject  is  man, 
the  acknowledged  head  of  the  animal  kingdom,  the  study 
of  whose  physical  and  intellectual  nature  forms  separate 
branches  of  science. 

The  habitual  position  of  man  is  erect;  the  lower  limbs 
are  used  only  for  walking  and  for  supporting  the  weight 
of  the  body.  The  arms  are  much  shorter  than  the  lower 
limbs,  and  they  terminate  in  a  hand  which  is  admirably 
adapted  to  ministering  to  his  needs,  and  to  performing  all 
the  delicate  operations  which  beautify  and  enrich  his  life. 
Above  all,  man  is  gifted  with  the  power  of  speech,  and 
with  mental  and  moral  faculties  capable  of  the  highest 
cultivation. 


INDEX. 


ACORN-BARNACLE,  99. 
Action  of  light  upon  shells,  151, 
Albatross,  267. 
Alligator,  239. 
Ambergris,  350. 
Ambulacra!  plates,  61. 
Ammonite,  183. 
Amphibious  animals,  215. 
Ant,  135. 

"    driver,  142. 

"    harvesting,  141. 

"    white,  142. 
Ant-eater,  great,  342. 

"  porcupine,  331. 

Antelope,  367. 
Antlers,  358. 
Apes,  401. 
Aphides,  140. 
Apteryx,  282. 
Archaeopteryx,  241. 
Argonaut,  176. 
Aristotle's  lantern,  67. 
Armadillo,  341. 
Articulates,  83. 
Atolls,  46. 
Auk,  269. 

BABOON,  401. 
Backboned  animals,  185. 
Bank-swallow,  317. 
Barnacle,  99. 

"        acorn,  99. 

"        goose,  101. 


Bat,  395. 

"    vampire,  397. 
Beaver,  387. 

"      dam,  389. 
Bees,  11 9. 

"    carpenter,  120. 
"    hive,  121. 
"     humble,  121. 
"    queen,  124. 
"    social,  120. 
"    solitary,  120. 
"    swarming  of,  126. 
"    the  sting  of,  119. 
Birds,  243. 

"     of  paradise,  307. 
"     of  prey  (Raptores\  320. 
Birds'  eggs,  253. 
"     nests,  256. 
Bivalves,  144. 
Blood,  190. 
Blubber,  346. 
Boa,  228. 
Bobolink,  314. 
Bower-bird,  309. 
Box-tortoise,  217. 
Breathing  of  fishes,  196. 

of  frogs,  212,  214. 
"         of  gasteropods,  163. 
"         of  insects,  112. 
"         of  lobsters,  95. 

of  man,  214. 
"         of  snails,  167. 
"        of  spiders,  104. 


408 


INDP;X. 


Breathing  of  turtles,  218. 

"         of  vertebrates,  191. 
Butcher-bird,  811. 
Butterflies,  113. 
Byssus,  150. 

CAMEL,  368. 

"      Arabian,  370. 
"      Bactrian,  370. 
Carnivorous  animals,  377. 
Carpenter-bee,  120. 
Cassowary,  282. 
Cat  family,  378. 
Caterpillar,  113. 
Cephalopods,  170. 
Cephalo- thorax,  89. 
Chambered  nautilus,  181. 
Chameleon,  232. 
Chamois,  367. 

Characteristics  of  birds,  243. 
Chimpanzee,  403. 
Chrysalis  of  insects,  113. 
Cilia,  4,  52. 
Circulation  of  the  blood,  190. 

"         in  birds,  248. 

"          in  crocodiles,  238. 

"          in  earth-worms,  84. 
in  fishes,  196. 

"          in  insects,  111. 

"         in  mammals,  331. 

"          in  reptiles,  219. 
Clam,  154. 

Climbing-birds  (Scansores),  295. 
Cobra,  228. 
Cod,  205. 

Cold-blooded  animals,  219. 
Coloring  of  tropical  animals,  201. 
Comatula,  72. 
Compound  eyes,  111. 
Condor,  325. 
Coral  polyps,  36. 

"     reefs,  43. 
Corals,  36. 

"      mushroom,  41. 


Corals,  organ-pipe,  41. 

"      red,  41. 
Corpuscles,  191. 
Cow-bunting,  300. 
Crab,  88. 

"     fiddler,  92. 

"     hermit,  91. 

"     hcrse-shoe,  94. 

"     king,  94. 

"     pea,  93. 
Crane,  272. 
Crinoids,  70. 
Crocodile,  235. 
Crossbill,  306. 
Crustaceans,  90. 
Ctenophora,  49. 
Cuckoo,  299. 
Cucumber,  sea,  76. 
Cultivation  of  fishes,  210.  . 
"          of  mussels,  150. 
"          of  oysters,  147. 
"          of  sponges,  9. 
Cuttle-fish,  173. 

DEER,  358. 

Devil-fish,  170. 

Digestion  of  gasteropods,  161. 

"        of  insects,  111. 

"        of  ruminating  animals,  360. 

"        of  vertebrates,  190. 
Dodo,  293. 
Dolphin,  351. 
Driver-ants,  142. 
Dromedary,  370. 
Duck,  261. 

"     eider,  267. 
Duck-bill,  327. 

EAGLE,  321. 

"      bald,  323. 

"      golden,  321. 
Earth-worm,  82. 
Echinoderrn,  68. 
Echinus,  68. 


INDEX. 


409 


Edentata,  338. 

Edible  birds'-nest,  316. 

Effect  of   use   and   disuse,  92,  96, 

246. 
Eggs  of  alligators,  239. 

"    of  ants,  137. 

"    of  birds,  253. 

"f    o  fishes,  199. 

"    of  frogs,  211. 

"    of  gasteropods,  163. 

"    of  hive-bees,  124. 

"    of  jelly-fishes,  14, 19. 

"    of  mosquitoes,  133. 

"    of  octopods,  174. 

"    of  ostriches,  279. 

"    of  oysters,  147. 

"    of  pear-conch,  163. 

"    of  sharks,  203. 

"    of  snails,  168. 

"    of  spiders,  105. 

"    of  turtles,  221. 
Eider-duck,  267. 
Elephant,  372. 

African,  374. 
"        Indian,  375. 
"        white,  375. 
Emu,  281. 
Epidermis  of  shells,  151. 

FEATHERS,  250. 

Feather-star,  72. 

Fiddler-crab,  92. 

Fins,  195. 

Fishes,  192. 

Fish-hawk,  323. 

Flamingo,  262. 

Flies,  134. 

Flint,  11. 

Flowers  fertilized  by  insects,  116. 

Flycatcher,  257. 

Flying-dragon,  233. 

Flying-fishes,  198. 

Flying-squirrel,  394. 

Foot  of  mollusks,  149. 


Fossil  birds,  282. 

"     cephalopods,  183. 

"     crinoids,  72. 

"     horses,  354. 

"     mammoths,  376. 

"     reptiles,  240. 
Fossils,  73. 
Fowls,  284. 
Fringing  reefs,  48. 
Frog,  211. 
Funnel  of  cephalopods,  172. 

GANGLIA,  84. 
Garden-spider,  107. 
Gasteropods,  158. 
Gazelle,  367. 
Gibbon,  402. 
Gills,  89, 196. 
Glyptodon,  343. 
Gnawing  animals,  388. 
Goldfinch,  304. 
Goose,  261. 

"     barnacle,  102. 
Gorilla,  405. 
Gossamer-spider,  107. 
Grubs,  115. 
Guillemot,  269. 
Gull,  264. 

HAND-BEAST,  241. 
Harvesting  ant,  141. 
Hawk,  320. 
Heart  of  birds,  248. 

"     of  crabs,  89. 

"     of  crocodiles,  238. 

"     of  fishes,  196. 

"     of  frogs,  213. 

"     of  oysters,  146. 

"     of  snakes,  226. 

"     of  turtles,  219. 

"     of  vertebrates,  190. 
Hermit-crab,  91. 
Heron,  271. 
Herring,  205. 


410 


INDEX. 


Hibernating,  220. 
Hive-bees,  121, 
Holothurians,  79. 
Hornbill,  307. 
Horned  toad,  234. 
Hornet,  131. 
Horse,  353. 
Horse-shoe  crab,  94. 
House-fly,  134. 
Humble-bee,  121. 
Humming-bird,  311. 
Hydroids,  12. 

IBIS,  sacred,  276. 

"    wood,  274. 
Idyia,  54. 
Iguana,  233, 
Imago,  1 14. 
India-ink,  172. 

Ink-bag  of  cephalopoda,  172. 
Insects,  110. 
Invertebrates,  187. 

JAW-FEET,  95. 
Jelly-fishes,  14, 18. 

KANGAROO,  333. 
Keyhole  urchin,  69. 
King-crab,  94. 
Koodoo,  367. 

LABIAL  PALPI,  146. 
Labyrinthodon,  241. 
Lady  in  the  lobster,  97. 
Larva  of  insects,  113. 
Lasso-cells,  20. 
Leopard,  381. 
Limpet,  165. 
Lingual  ribbon,  160. 
Lion,  377. 
Lizard,  230. 
Llama,  371. 
Lobster,  95. 
Lustre  of  shells,  161. 


MACKEREL,  205. 
Madreporic  body,  58,  65. 
Maggot,  115. 
Mammals,  329. 

"         characteristics  of,  330. 
Mammoth,  376. 
Man,  406. 
Mandrill,  401. 
Mantle,  143. 
Marsupials,  336. 
Mastodon,  376. 
Medusa,  21. 
Megatherium,  343. 
Metamorphosis,  112. 

"  of  barnacles,  100. 

"  of  crabs,  91. 

"  of  insects,  112. 

"  of  mosquitoes,  132. 

Migration  of  birds,  251. 

"        of  fishes,  205. 

"        of  salmon,  206. 
Mimicry,  32,  231. 

"       of  birds,  249,  259. 

"       of  butterflies,  117. 

;%       of  leopards,  381. 

"       of  lions,  380. 

"       of  lizards,  231. 

"       of  mollusks,  143. 

"        of  pheasants,  286. 

"       of  tigers,  380. 
Moa,  283. 
Mocking-bird,  314. 
Mollusks,  143. 
Monkeys,  398. 

"        Gibraltar,  400. 

"        New  World,  398. 

"        Old  World,  400. 

"        spider,  400. 
Mosquito,  132. 

Mother  Carey's  chickens,  267. 
Mother-of-pearl,  163. 
Moths,  116. 

Moulting,  90,  97,  113,  133,  226. 
Mud-wasp,  128 


INDEX. 


411 


Music  of  birds,  249. 
Mussel,  149. 

NACRE,  151. 
Narwhal,  351. 
Natica,  164. 
Nautilus,  paper,  176. 
"        pearly,  181. 
Nidus  of  natica,  164. 
Nightingale,  314. 

OCTOPUS,  170. 
Odontophore,  161. 
Operculum,  160. 
Opossum,  336. 
Orang-outang,  402. 
Organs,  27. 

"       rudimentary,  20 
Oriole,  302. 
Ornithorhynchus,  327. 
Ostrich,  277. 

"       farming,  280. 
Ovipositor,  111. 
Owl,  325. 
Oyster,  143. 

u      pearl,  151. 

PALLIAL  LINE,  146. 

Paper  nautilus,  176. 

Parrot,  295. 

Parrot's  beak,  171. 

Partial  distribution  of  animals, 

Partridge,  288. 

Pea-crab,  93. 

Pea-fowl,  284. 

Pearl,  151. 

"     fisheries,  152. 

"     oyster,  161. 
Pearly  nautilus,  181. 
Pecten,  153. 
Pelican,  269. 
Penguin,  268. 

Perching-birds  (Insessores),  302. 
"        of  birds,  247. 


Pheasant,  286. 
Phosphorescence,  24. 
Pigeon,  290. 
Plant-lice,  140. 
Pleurobrachia,  55. 
Poison-fang,  225. 
Porpoise,  351. 
Portuguese  man-of-war,  26. 
Prehensile  tail,  233. 
Pupa  of  insects,  113. 

QUADRATE  BONE,  225. 
Quail,  290. 

RADIATES,  40. 

Rattlesnake,  226. 

Razor-fish,  157. 

Reed-bird,  315. 

Reindeer,  364. 

Renewal  of  lost  parts,  33,  57,  79,  96, 

230. 

Reptiles,  217. 
Rhea,  280. 
Rice-bird,  316. 
Robin,  302. 
Rodents,  388. 
Rorqual,  348. 
Ruby-throat,  313. 
Rudimentary  organs,  20. 
Ruminating  animals,  360. 
Running-birds  (Cursores),  277. 

SACRED  IBIS,  275. 

Salmon,  206. 

Sand-dollar,  69. 

Scratching-birds  (Rasores\  284. 

Sea-anemone,  29. 

Sea-bear,  384. 

Sea-birds,  263. 

Sea-cucumber,  76. 

Sea-fir,  12. 

Sea-gull,  264. 

Sea-horse,  201. 


INDEX. 


Sea-lion,  384. 

Sunfish,  200. 

Sea-nettle,  21. 

Surinam  toad,  215. 

Sea-orange,  78. 

Swallow,  316. 

Sea-urchin,  63. 

Swan,  262. 

Seal,  382. 

Swim-bladder,  196. 

Sepia,  172. 

Swimmerets,  96. 

Shark,  203. 

Swimming-birds  (Natatores),  260. 

Shell-tishes,  143. 

Shore-birds,  276. 

TADPOLES,  211. 

Shrike,  311. 

Tailor-bird,  257. 

Silk-worm,  117. 

Tarantula,  108. 

Siphon  of  mollusks,  165. 

Telson,  96. 

Siphuncle,  182. 

Tentacles,  13,  20,  30. 

Skylark,  314. 

Termites,  142. 

Sloth,  338. 

Terrapin,  220. 

Snail,  166. 

Thrush,  314. 

Snakes,  223. 

Tiger,  379. 

Snow-bird,  304. 

Toad,  214.  ' 

Song-sparrow,  304. 

"     horned,  234. 

Spermaceti,  349. 

"     Surinam,  215. 

Spicules,  3,  6. 

"     tree,  215. 

Spider,  103. 

Tortoise,  217. 

"      garden,  107. 

Tortoise-shell,  221. 

"      gossamer,  107. 

Toucan,  300. 

"      trap-door,  108. 

Tracheae,  112. 

"      water,  107. 

Trap-door  spider,  108. 

Spinal  column,  186. 

Trepang,  80. 

Spines  of  sea-urchins,  66. 

Trogon,  301. 

Spinnerets,  104. 

Tube-feet,  60. 

Sponge-fishing,  9. 

Turkey,  284. 

"      glass,  10. 

Turtle,  2  17. 

Sponges,  1. 

"      green,  220. 

Spore-sacs,  14. 

"      hawk's-bill,  221.      . 

Squid,  175. 

Squirrel,  390. 

UNIVALVES,  158. 

"       flying,  394. 

Urchin,  key-hole,  69. 

Starfish,  56. 

"       sea,  63. 

Stickleback,  200. 

Stigmata,  112. 

VAMPIRE  BAT,  397. 

Sting  of  bees,  119. 

Venus's  flower-basket,  10. 

"     of  mosquitoes,  132. 

Vertebrates,  186. 

Stone-lily,  70. 

Vulture,  325. 

Stork,  273. 

Stormy  petrel,  265. 

WADING-BIRDS  (Grallatores),  271. 

INDEX. 


413 


Walrus,  385. 
Wasps,  128. 

"      mud,  128. 

"       social,  129. 
Water-spider,  107. 
Weaver-bird,  259. 
Whalebone,  346 
Whales,  844, 

Greenland,  346. 
sperm,  349. 
Whippoorwill,  318. 


White  ant,  142. 
Wings  of  birds,  245. 
Woodpecker,  296. 
Worm,  earth,  82. 
Worm,  silk,  117. 
Wren,  311. 

YEtLOW-BIRD,  304. 

Yellow-jacket,  132. 
ZKBRA,  356. 


THE    END. 


RETURN        MARIAN  KOSHLAND  BIOSCIENCE  AND 
TO  — ¥  NATURAL  RESOURCES  LIBRARY 

2101  Valley  Life  Sciences  Bldg.    642-2531 

LOAN  PERIOD 

ONE  MONTH  LOAN 


ALL  BOOKS  MAY  BE  RECALLED  AFTER  7  DAYS. 


DUE  AS  STAMPED  BELOW. 


DUI 

I 

VjULfOJ 

m 

^X 

=1IJRIECTT< 

DREG 

ALL 

DUE 

JUL  n  R  7003 

CMIRIECTT^  REC 

ALL 

FORM  NO.  DD  8 
24M    11-02 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  BERKELEY 
Berkeley,  California  94720-6500 


!OLO€ 

l^\   **      i   i  r»  r»  A  t^ 


LIBRAR/ 


